Levites and the Exodus Multitude (1)

This topic traces the ancient Israelites – starting with Jacob’s relocation from the Land of Canáan to Egypt, their population growth…into the exodus & wilderness with the mixed multitude.  My focus here is on the growth of the Levites and, in detail, the descendants of Levi’s son Koháth, the Kohathites.

The Bible characters in this topic lived far back in history.  Dating for their births & deaths is inexact.  The dates used are approximate, to place the Levite lineage in historical perspective.  The chronological framework is taken from Dr. Martin Anstey The Romance of Bible Chronology, v.2.

The patriarch Jacob, whose name God changed to Israel (Ge.32:28), had 12 sons (Ge.35:23-26).  Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, etc…Joseph, Benjamin.  The descendants of those 12 became the 12 tribes of Israel.  (also see the topics “Chronology: Abraham to the Exodus” and “Israelites Identification”.)

Jacob’s 3^rd son was Levi.  Levi himself had 3 sons.  Ge.46:11 “The sons of Levi: Gershón, Kohath and Merarí.”  These 3 sons and their descendants became the Levites, descended from Levi.

Moses and his brother Aaron descended from Levi & Kohath.  They were Kohathites.  Moses was a priest (Ex.24:6, 29:26, Nu.7:1, Ps.99:6).  Later, only Aaron and his descendants among the Levites were priests.  Not all Levites or Kohathites became priests (Nu.4:17-20, 16:1-3); only the clan of Aaron did.

Ge.41:41 Jacob’s 11^th son Joseph became ruler of Egypt under Pharaoh.  Ge.46:5-27 Jacob, his sons and their families, went to join Joseph in Egypt circa (c) 1827 BC.  Ge.41:27 Septúagint/LXX “The sons of Joseph, born to him in Egypt, were 9; all the souls of the house of Jacob who came with Joseph into Egypt, were 75.”  Ac.7:14 has “75 souls”.  (Males, not counting wives.)  Ge.47:9 Jacob was 130 years old then.  His son Joseph was 39 or 40 (cf. Ge.41:46-47 with Ge.45:6), having been born c 1867 BC.

Ge.46:8, 11 Levi’s young 2^nd son Kohath and his two brothers (Gershon & Merari) went to Egypt with their father Levi & grandfather Jacob.  Joseph, age 40, would live on for 70 more years, until age 110 (Ge.50:26), until c 1757 BC.  Kohath was in Egypt during those 70 years that Joseph was still alive.

Nu.26:57-59 “Kohath became the father of Amrám…Jochébed bore to Amram: Aaron and Moses and their sister Miriám.”  Kohath was Moses’ grandfather!  Kohath wasn’t a distant ancestor.  So Moses wasn’t born all that long after Joseph’s death.

Ex.2:1 “A man [Amram] from the house of Levi married a daughter of Levi.”  This may reflect the line of Levi as ancestral, not Levi as her immediate father.  Ellicott Commentary “A descendant of Levi, not a daughter in the literal sense.”  However, cf. Zec.1:1 “Zecharíah, the prophet, the son of Berechíah, the son of Iddó”, versus Ezr.5:1 “Zechariah the son of Iddo”.  Ezra’s account skipped one generation.  Moses’ Exodus account could’ve skipped generations, but it seems unlikely (as we’ll see below).

In scripture, Moses & Aaron were the great-great grandsons of Jacob.  Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 2:9:6 “Moses….Abraham was his ancestor, of the 7^th generation.”  Philo On the Life of Moses 1:2:7 “Moses is the 7^th generation from the original settler in the country [Abraham].”

Abraham–Isaac–Jacob–Levi/Joseph–Kohath–Amram–Moses/Aaron…the 7 generations.  No skips.

1Ch.23:15 Moses had 2 sons, Gershóm (not Gershon) and Eliézer.  Ex.6:23 Moses’ brother Aaron had 4 sons: Nadáb, Abihú, Eleazár, Ithamár.  When Aaron later died in the wilderness, Eleazar replaced him as the high priest (Nu.20:28).  Eleazar’s son was Phinehás (Ex.6:25).

(Kohath)–Amram–Aaron/Moses–Eleazar–Phinehas…that’s only 4 generations of Kohathites, born after Jacob or Israel moved to Egypt.  Ex.18:1-6 soon after the exodus, Moses’ Midianite wife Zipporáh and their 2 sons rejoined Moses in the wilderness.  Moses’ sons Gershom & Eliezer were half-Midianite.

After the exodus, Nu.3:27-28 is early in the wilderness. “Of Kohath…the number of all the males from one month old and upwards, was 8,600.”  What!?  That’s an astounding increase in so few generations!

Here’s a question: How could the branch of Kohath (Levi’s son), reckoned from that 1 man, increase to 8,600 male descendants…after only 4 generations?!  Continuing with the Levite Kohathites….

Ex.6:18, 20 “The sons of Kohath: Amram, Izhár, Hebrón, Uzziél. The years of Kohath’s life were 133 years….Amram married Jochebed, and she bore him Aaron and Moses.”  Moses’ mother Jochebed was a relative (LXX 1^st cousin) of her husband Amram.  “The years of Amram’s life were 137 years [LXX NETS 136].”  Levi/Joseph–Kohath–Amram–Moses…that’s 4 generations.  1Ch.6:1-3 confirms those 4.

Humans were longer-lived in those days than now.  Of Kohath’s 133 years, again, 70 of them were spent with Joseph in Egypt (c 1827–1757 BC).  The traditional (supposed) Book of Jasher 68:29 indicates that elderly Kohath was still alive in the 1690s BC (when Moses was named)!  So perhaps Kohath was born c 1830 BC.  If so, he would’ve been age 3 when they went from Canaan to Egypt c 1827 BC.  That would make Kohath age 73 when his uncle Joseph died c 1757 BC.

Kohath’s firstborn son Amram (Moses’ father) may have been born c 1811 BC, when Kohath was 19.  If so, Amram’s death at age 136 or 137 was c 1675 BC (still decades prior to the exodus).  Amram would’ve been age 54 when Joseph died c 1757 BC.  Pulpit Commentary Ex.6:18 “Amram would have been contemporary with Joseph for above 50 years.”

Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q545 “The writing of the words of the vision of Amram, son of Qahat [Kohath], son of Levi, all that he has explained to his sons…on the day of his death in the year 136 – the year of his death [Amram’s]. In the year 152 of the exile of Israel in Egypt. Also it came to him to call Uzziel, his younger brother, and gave him Miriam his 30-year-old daughter for wife. He sent to call Aaron his 20-year-old son [3 years older than Moses]…I will explain to you your names that he wrote for Moses.”  Accordingly, 152 years after the 1827 BC relocation from Canaan to Egypt was 1675 BC.

The birth of Moses, Amram’s youngest child, c 1692 BC, was only 65 years after Joseph died (c 1757 BC)!  Philip Mauro The Wonders of Bible Chronology, p.40 “The interval between the death of Joseph and the birth of Moses was 64 years.”  Calculating the above 4Q545 elapsed time, Amram would’ve been age 106 when Miriam was born, 116 at Aaron’s birth, 119 at Moses’ birth!  Miriam was around 13 when she spoke with Pharaoh’s daughter at the Nile River regarding baby Moses, Ex.2:1-10.

For those ancient Levites to father children at such advanced ages seems too old by today’s standards.  But people lived longer in those days, and could maintain their life force.  Jacob died at age 147, Levi at age 137 (Ex.6:16), Kohath at age 133, Amram at 136 or 137, Aaron at 123 (Nu.33:39).  De.34:7 “Moses was 120 years old when he died; his eye was not dim nor his vigor abated.”  Even at age 120, Moses didn’t experience the infirmities of age that are prevalent today.  He maintained his vigor!  For that matter, Isaac was 60 when his twins Jacob & Esau were born (Ge.25:26).  Jacob was 90 when he fathered Joseph, and near 100 when he fathered Benjamin!  (ref Ge.47:9 Joseph was near 40 when his father Jacob, at age 130, came to Egypt.)

Ex.12:40 LXX “The children of Israel, while they sojourned in the land of Egypt and the land of Canaan, was 430 years.”  The Masoretic text omits “and the land of Canaan”.  But the accounts in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Talmud and Josephus all agree with the LXX.  Josephus op. cit. 2:15:2 “They left Egypt 430 years after Abraham came into Canaan, but 215 years only after Jacob removed into Egypt. It [the exodus] was the 80^th year of Moses.”  They stayed 215 years in Canaan and 215 years in Egypt.

Gill Exposition “Certain it is, that Israel did not dwell in Egypt 430 years.”  JFB Commentary “The period of sojourn in Egypt did not exceed 215 years.”  Mauro op. cit., p.34 “The 430 years began with God’s promise to Abram, made at the time he entered into Canaan at the age of 75 (Gen.12:1-4).”

Since lives were longer back then, producing 4 generations over 215 years may be believable.  But producing only 4 generations over 430 years is unbelievable!

If Abrám was born c 2117 BC, he arrived in Canaan in 2042 BC at age 75 (Ge.12:4-5).  At age 100, Abraham fathered Isaac (Ge.21:5), c 2017 BC.  At age 60, Isaac fathered Jacob & Esau (Ge.25:26), c 1957 BC.  When Jacob was 130 (Ge.47:9), he and his moved from Canaan to Egypt, c 1827 BC.

Abram’s arrival in Canaan (c 2042 BC) until Jacob’s departure from Canaan (c 1827 BC) = 215 years in Canaan.  And Jacob/Israel’s arrival in Egypt (c 1827 BC) until the exodus (c 1612 BC) = 215 years in Egypt.  The total of both = 430 years…2042–1612 BC.  (see “Chronology: Abraham to the Exodus”.)

Also, 4 generations of Kohathites lived during the 215 years in Egypt.  Kohath–Amram–Aaron/Moses–Eleazar (and into the wilderness).  Returning to the Levite/Kohathites….

Nu.3:19 “The sons of Kohath: Amram and Izhar, Hebron and Uzziel.”  Besides Amram (the father of Moses & Aaron), Kohath had 3 other sons.  Kohath’s 2^nd son was Izhar (uncle to Moses & Aaron).

Nu.16:1-4 also confirms 4 generations.  (No skips.)  “Now Kórah, the son of Izhar, the son of Kohath, the son of Levi…incited rebellion against Moses and Aaron, and said, ‘Why do you exalt yourselves?”  Izhar’s son Korah was Moses’ 1^st cousin!  Korah, being a near relative, thought he should have more input or authority.  But because of his insurrection, Korah died in an earthquake or sinkhole (Nu.16:32).

Nu.3:27-29 “Of Kohath was the family of the Amramites, the family of the Izharites, the family of the Hebronites and the family of the Uzzielites.”  To repeat, Kohath’s 4 sons (born in Egypt) were: Amram, Izhar, Hebron, Uzziel.  Kohath’s grandsons, which include Moses & Aaron, were also born in Egypt.  Kohath’s great-grandsons, which include the 6 sons of Moses/Aaron, also were born before the exodus.

Again, the (priestly) line in 1Ch.6:1-3 confirms the generations of descent from Levi & Kohath. “The sons of Levi were Gershon, Kohath and Merari.  The sons of Kohath were Amram, Izhar, Hebron and Uzziel. The children of Amram were Aaron, Moses and Miriam. And the sons of Aaron were Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar.”  The Kohathite Aaron and his descendants became the priests in Israel.

So these genealogies in Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, 1Chronicles agree.  It appears that no generations were skipped in those scriptural accounts.

Early in the wilderness, the Kohathites from the ages of 30 to 50 totaled 2,750 men (Nu.4:34-37).  And Kohathites from the age of one month and up totaled 8,600 men (Nu.3:27-28).  Again, Kohath’s branch (which included Aaron & the priests) had increased from 1 to 8,600 males after only 4 generations!

Tracing further the Levite Kohath’s descendants…Ex.6:20-21 Moses/Aaron’s uncle Izhar had 3 sons; Korah (Nu.16:1), Népheg, Zichrí.  Ex.6:22 & Le.10:4 Moses/Aaron’s uncle Uzziel had 3 sons; Mishaél or Micháh, Elzaphán, Sithrí.  Perhaps a 4^th son of Uzziel was Issiáh (1Ch.23:20)?  I’ll include him in the count.  1Ch.23:19 Moses/Aaron’s uncle Hebron had 4 sons; Jeriáh, Amariáh, Jahaziél, Jekámeam.

So Moses & Aaron had 11 male paternal first cousins, most or all of whom lived into the exodus.

Including Moses & Aaron, this would result in only 13 male Kohathites in Moses/Aaron’s generation!  Kohath was their grandfather.  The 13 male first cousins were: Moses, Aaron, Korah, Nepheg, Zichri, Mishael or Michah, Elzaphan, Sithri, Issiah (possibly), Jeriah, Amariah, Jahaziel, Jekameam.

Female paternal cousins, daughters of one’s father’s siblings, would become part of whatever clan they married into (unless she married her own cousin, a grandson of Kohath).  Female maternal cousins, daughters of one’s mother’s siblings, wouldn’t be Kohathites (unless an aunt married one of Kohath’s four sons).

The Bible uses patrilineal reckoning from the fathers (not the traditional Jewish matrilineal reckoning from mothers).  Nu.1:18 “They registered by ancestry in their families, by their father’s households, according to the number of names.”  Not according to the mothers.

Again, the Kohathite generation previous to Moses/Aaron consisted of Amram, Izhar, Uzziel, Hebron.  Those 4 brothers most likely died in Egypt; none of them living into the exodus & wilderness.

The 13 male Kohathites in Moses & Aaron’s generation had sons.  1Ch.23:15 Moses had 2 sons; Gershom, Eliezer.  Ex.6:23 Aaron had 4 sons; Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, Ithamar.  Ex.6:24 cousin Korah had 3 sons; Assír, Elkanáh, Abiasáph.

The cousins Moses, Aaron, Korah had 9 sons between them.  Scripture doesn’t tell us the number of sons had by the other 10 first cousins.  We can speculate or estimate that 10 other cousins had maybe 40 sons between them?  If so, there were close to 50 males in the next generation of Kohathites.

Possibly the 13 males in Moses/Aaron’s generation all lived into the wilderness.  (Nu.16:32 Korah died in the wilderness earthquake or sinkhole.)  Add to the 13 the perhaps 50 sons they had…the males still alive from 3 generations of Kohathites then totaled only 63.  Amram’s generation = 0; Aaron/Moses’ generation = 13; Eleazar/Gershom’s generation = est. 50.  Total = est. 63.

We don’t know how many grandsons Moses, Aaron and the other 11 first cousins had.  Ex.6:25 Aaron’s son Eleazar had a son named Phinehas.  Nu.25:7 “Phinehas the son of Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest.”  Only a few grandsons of the 13 Kohathite cousins are identified in scripture.

Even if the 13 first cousins had 50 sons who had 350 sons of their own (7 sons each!)…that’s only 413 total Kohathites.  413 = 8,187 less than the 8,600 male Kohathites of Nu.3:28, early in the wilderness!

Let’s now look at the other two Levite branches, besides the Kohathites.  Again, Ge.46:11 Kohath had two brothers…Gershon (not Gershom) and Merari, sons of Levi.  There were 3 branches of Levites.

{Sidelight: The 3 branches of Levites later had specific duties in the wilderness.  The Gershonites were on the west side of the tabernacle and carried its tapestry (Nu.3:23-26).  The Merarites camped on the north side and transported the tabernacle frames & support system (Nu.3:35-37).  The Kohathites were on the south side and transported the holy furnishings (Nu.3:29-31).  Moses and the priests (Aaron and his sons) camped to the east and served the sanctuary (Nu.3:38).}

Nu.3:18 “These were the names of the sons of Gershon by their clans, Libní and Shiméi.”  Gershon had  2 sons.  Nu.3:20 “The sons of Merari by their clans, Mahlí and Mushí.”  Merari also had only 2 sons.  Nu.3:19 again, Kohath had 4 sons.  All the Levites named here in Nu.3:17-20 died prior to the exodus.

I won’t trace the lesser lineages of Gershon and Merari.  (ref e.g. 1Ch.23:6-24.)  Yet early in the wilderness the total male Gershonites were 7,500 (Nu.3:21-22).  And the total male Merarites were 6,200 (Nu.3:33-34).  Adding in the 8,600 Kohathite males…there were 22,000 (or 22,300) total Levite males.  Nu.3:39 “All the numbered men of the Levites…from a month old and upward, were 22,000.”

Another question: How did the tribe of Levi, tracking from his 3 sons, become 22,000 or 22,300 males from age one month and up, during that same period (215 years)?!  What an increase from only 3 men!

Furthermore, during the same period of time, the 75-85 males (Ge.46:27 LXX) who were in Egypt with Jacob/Joseph increased to 603,550 non-Levite warriors age 20 and up, early in the wilderness (Nu.1:45-47)!  Josephus op. cit. 2:15:1 “The entire multitude of those who went out [from Egypt], including the women and children, that were of a fit age for war, were 600,000.”  Philo On the Life of Moses 1:27:147 “The men of age to bear arms were more than 600,000 men.”

So a related third question: How could the 75-85 males increase to more than 600,000 after only 4 generations?!

Were there strong aphrodisiacs in Egypt to heighten libido?!  Did each woman have dozens of children?

This topic about the Levites/Kohathites and the number of mixed multitude who comprised the exodus from Egypt is continued in “Levites and the Exodus Multitude (2)”.

 

Polygyny – Lawful in God’s Eyes? (1)

This is a subject related to Biblical morality that most Christians and Western churches haven’t examined in-depth.  Before proceeding with it, please be advised…the subject is very controversial!  

This topic examines Christ’s Old Testament (OT) regulations concerning plural wives & concubines.  You may be shocked to read lesser-known marriage laws of Christ from the OT!  The topic may be hard to hear for those living in modern Western culture.

Our English term polygamy (from ca 1600 AD) includes polygyny (1780 AD), one man cohabiting with plural wives; polyandry (1780), one woman cohabiting with plural husbands.  Are these lawful options in God’s eyes?  The terms are derived from the Greek poly/many, gamos/marriage, gyne/wife.  Some today don’t differentiate between polygamy and polygyny, as if they’re interchangeable terms.

Our modern society is decadent.  Illicit sex, licentiousness, abortion, divorce are rampant.  Divorce & remarriage is a form of serial monogamy, called consecutive polygyny and consecutive polyandry.  

Greco-Roman society was monogamous on the surface.  Yet it had widespread prostitution, pederasty, sexual perversion, divorce, as we today.  A. Isaksson wrote, “In Rome divorces were so numerous, they constituted a serious social problem.”  The divorce problem wasn’t quite as bad in 1^st century Palestine.

Anciently, concubinage was a recognized arrangement; it loosely compares to a ‘mistress staying in the house’.  Concubinage was also present in the Mediterranean world, especially within the military.  S.M. Baugh Marriage and Family in Ancient Greek Society “Concubinage was widespread and commonly accepted among the Greeks and Romans.”  But it wasn’t legally fully marriage in Roman society.  Wikipedia: Concubinage “Concubinage was an institution of quási-marriage between Roman citizens who for various reasons did not want to enter into a full marriage.”

Roman Empire law didn’t include all the OT guidelines for marriage that Christ had revealed to His people ancient Israel.  However, 1^st century Jews (and Persians?) were allowed by Rome to continue practicing the OT laws & principles of their traditional marriages.  The Jewish historian Josephus (37-100 AD) wrote, Wars of the Jews 1:24:2, “It being of old permitted to the Jews to marry many wives”.

But regardless of cultural influences, God defines true morality.  He defines what is and isn’t sexual sin.  Laws of human governments and customs of nations may or may not reflect God’s morality! 

First, a blanket statement…scripture indicates that irresponsible casual sex isn’t God’s way.

Christ commanded in Ex.20:14 and Mt.5:27, “You shall not commit adultery”.  It’s a form of sexual sin.  Adultery is committed when a man has sex with a woman who is married or betrothed to another man.  Betrothal was a legal commitment, prior to consummation.  The adulterous man can be married or single; his marital status isn’t a factor.  Her marital status is the key!  The scriptures reveal that adultery always involves a wife or betrothed woman who broke wedlock; another man stole her, in a sense.  Moody Bible Institute Professor of Theology William F. Luck The Morality of Biblical Polygyny, p.14 “Adultery was always defined by the woman’s marital status, never the man’s.”  Thus it was impossible for an OT widow, divorcee, or otherwise single woman to commit adultery!

We’ll see that a man lawfully could live with plural wives.  It is authorized in scripture (if practiced responsibly).  That is, if he didn’t steal a wife from her husband.  Ex.20:15 “You shall not steal.”

Ex.20:17 LXX “You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, you shall not covet your neighbor’s house, nor his field, his servant, his maid, his cattle…nor whatever belongs to your neighbor.”  Wrong coveting can occur regarding another’s wife, his male and female servants, etc.  But nothing is said about singles coveting another’s husband!  A man was allowed simultaneous wives in Christ’s theocracy.  So a single woman could rightly desire a married man.  (This indulgence is strange to our Western minds.)

Going back even prior to ancient Israel…Ge.20 King Abimélech of Gerár had a (free) wife and maid concubine wives (v.17).  v.2-3 then he took Sarah from Abraham her husband, thinking she was only his “sister”.  But God quickly revealed to him in a dream that she’s married.  v.4-ff Abimelech said, “Lord…in the integrity of my heart and innocence of my hands I have done this thing.’ God said, ‘I know that in the integrity of your heart you have done this. Therefore I did not let you touch her. Restore the man’s wife.”  Abimelech had acted with integrity.  His sin wasn’t him having plural wives.  His sin was…the woman he took, Sarah, was another man’s wife.  Abraham and Abimelech both were gentiles/non-Jews.  (Note: Later, 1450 BC Núzi tablets found in northern Iraq evidence a man’s wife legally could be considered his sister.  Ge.13:8 also Abrám had called his nephew Lot his “brother”.)

Ge.12:10-20 the gentile/non-Jew Pharaoh of Egypt too mistakenly took Sarah for ritual purification, so she could become his wife.  After the Lord caused him to realize his mistake, Pharaoh even blessed Abram (Sarah’s husband) with livestock and male & female servants/maids!

Ge.16:1-9 the Egyptian maid Hagár became wife to Abram (v.3).  Their tie constituted marriage.  She was his concubine or secondary wife.  That isn’t immoral.  But strife arose…Sarah treated Hagar harshly, v.6; Ishmaél (son of Abraham-Hagar) lacked proper respect for Isaac (son of Abraham-Sarah), Ge.21:9-10.  Lack of respect resulted in…divorce (garásh Strongs h1644, Hebrew) the bondwoman wife!  (ref divorce/drive out h1644 in: Pr.22:10, Nu.30:9, Le.21:7, 22:13, Ezk.44:22, Ga.4:30.)

Ge.25:1-2 Abraham also took a concubine wife named Keturáh (1Ch.1:32), who bore him six sons.  Ge.25:6 “To the sons of his concubines, Abraham gave gifts while he was still living.”  Concubinage isn’t sin.  And according to the apostle Paul, Abraham is the father of the faithful (Ro.4:16; cf. He.11:8, 13).  Also Abraham’s brother Nahór had a concubine named Reumáh (Ge.22:23-24).

The OT Hebrew loan word translated concubine is peléhgesh h6370, occurring 37 times.  The Aramaic is h3904 (Da.5:2, 3, 23).  The corresponding term in the OT Greek LXX, g3825.1, occurs 41 times.

Jb.1:8 God said His servant Job (a gentile) was a blameless, upright man.  Yet in his trials, Job’s wife and surviving offspring didn’t console him.  Jb.19:17-18 LXX Job lamented, “I besought my wife, and earnestly entreated the sons of my concubines. But they rejected me.”  Righteous Job had concubines.

The earlier (gentile) Lámech, the first man in scripture with two wives, killed a man (Ge.4:19-24).  Therefore, some presume that all polygyny is wrong.  Tom Shipley Man and Woman in Biblical Law “The fact that Lamech was evil does not, and cannot, prove that his polygamy was evil, as well. The above syllogism [premise] is ‘reductio ad absurdum.”  (Good men too, in scripture, were polygynous.)

Ge.30:1-24 Israel’s 12 tribes descended from the patriarch Jacob and his four wives.  Leah & Rachel were his free wives, Bilháh & Zilpah his ‘secondary’ bond wives.  v.4 “Rachel gave Jacob her maid Bilhah as a wife.”  Jacob, whose name God changed (Ge.32:28) to “Israel”, wasn’t an adulterer! (cf. De.23:2)  Cohabiting with four wives, he was ‘one flesh’ with each.  The OT people Christ loved above all others, the 12 tribes of ancient Israel, weren’t illegitimately fathered by an adulterer!  (Note: A wife’s maid being given to the wife’s husband is also evident in the ancient Code of Hammurabi #146.)

So far, we see that having plural wives was morally acceptable to gentiles/non-Jews and Jacob/Israel!  Godly and ungodly men of the Bible had plural wives.  Later, during Moses’ time, Christ gave codified laws/regulations to His theocratic nation Israel.  (see the topic “Jesus Was The Old Testament God”.)  His laws define marriage in God’s sight, adultery, and prescribe consequences for violations.

De.22:22-27 shows the joint penalty for adultery, consensual sex with a woman married or betrothed to another man.  If the offender raped her, only he is guilty.  Le.19:20 the penalty for having sex with a bondmaid acquired for another man was less than that for a free woman.  (Less station & limited loyalty effected less penalty/fine for the bondmaid, not yet fully espoused.)  If a man, single or married, had sex with a virgin residing with her father, he’s to marry her, De.22:28-29 & Ex.22:16-17…not ignore her.

De.21:15-17 “If a man has two wives…”  Polygyny wasn’t unlawful.  This passage shows that (among free wives) the double-portion inheritance right of the eldest son was protected.  Pulpit Commentary De.21:15 “He mustn’t allow his love for the other [wife] to prejudice the right of the son.”  De.17:15-17 though plural wives & horses wasn’t sin, the king wasn’t to multiply to himself horses or pagan wives.  (Horses were used mostly for war.)  No large pagan harems!  Solomon later violated this, 1Ki.11:1-4.

But Christ/God forbad incestual polygyny.  Le.18:7-8 a man mustn’t have sex with his mother, nor with any other of his father’s wives (Ge.35:22, 49:4; 1Co.5:1).  Nor with his own daughter (Le.18:17, 20:14).

Jesus the Man didn’t repeat all these His commands.  Yet they still define His morality.  He said, “It is written!” Mt.4:4, 7, 10.  Polygyny is authorized, but polyandry is adultery.  Married prostitutes too are adulteresses.  (The topic “Sexual Sins, Harlotry, Rape” examines sexual immorality more in-depth.)

Ex.21:7-11 describes God’s law of concubines.  “If a man takes another wife, he must not reduce the food, clothing or conjugal dues of his first wife.”  Ellicott Commentary Ex.21:10 “Polygamy is viewed as lawful in this passage.”  That is, polygyny; it isn’t immoral in Christ’s theocracy.  Cambridge Bible Ex.21:10 “The case contemplated is that of a well-to-do Israelite who could have several concubines.”

Is.4:1 this prophecy too shows that polygyny isn’t adultery. “Seven women will take hold of one man in that day, saying, ‘We will eat our own food and wear our own clothes, only let us be called by your name; take away our reproach.”  Many men had died in warfare, Is.3:25 (cf. Je.15:8).  Is.4:1 women were even willing to relinquish two of the supports the Lord designated in Ex.21:10, so long as her husband gives her conjugal dues!  JFB Commentary Is.4:1 “Foregoing the privileges, which the law (Ex.21:10) gives to wives, when a man has more than one. ‘Reproach’ – being unmarried and childless.”  An unmarried and childless woman later might lack sustenance in her old age.    

De.21:10-15 describes God’s law of war brides, so-called. “When you go to war against your enemies and God delivers them into your hands, and you see among the captives a beautiful woman, and would take her as a wife for yourself….If a man has two wives….”  A war bride wasn’t to be raped.  The Israelite was to bring her to his house; she must renounce her heathen customs, and be allowed to mourn her mother & father for a month.  The month delay would reveal if she was already pregnant before her capture.  Only after the month would she become the Israelite’s concubine wife, and sexual relations then ensue.  Married into God’s theocracy, she could learn the ways of the true God.  If the man wasn’t pleased with her, she was to be given her complete freedom; he wasn’t to sell his concubine for money.     

Nu.31:18-ff virgins were among the spoils taken from the slaughter of God’s vengeance against Midián.  The Lord said in v.18, “All the girls who have never had sexual relations, keep for yourselves”.  v.27, 32-47 the total of virgins taken was divided into two halves, for the Israelite warriors and non-warriors.  A small % of the girls (0.2%) were for the priests, v.40.  (But the high priest could only marry a virgin Israelitess, not foreigners, Le.21:10-14.)  Gill Exposition Le.21:13 “Polygamy [polygyny] was practiced by the Israelites, even by the common priests.”  Christ’s OT Levitical priests weren’t celibate!

De.25:5-10 was Christ’s levirate law, so-called.  A brother-in-law or near relative, even if he’s already married, was to marry a deceased Israelite’s widow who had no son.  The Latin word levir meant ‘husband’s brother’.  Without children, a man’s family name was “blotted out of Israel”.  Widowhood could result in poverty for an aging woman with no son to help provide for her!  Maurice Nelson The Monogamy Lie! “Levirate marriage could be seen as a type of Life Insurance for a widow.”

Ruth’s Jewish husband had died.  Ru.4:1-10 Bóaz and the closer relative possibly were both married.  William Luck op. cit., p.21 “Polygyny was not immoral, per se; widow-neglect based on commitment to monogamy was.”  A widow was even authorized to spit in the face of a brother-in-law, single or married, who refused to marry her (De.25:9)!  Boaz married Ruth, and fathered a son for her (Ru.4:13).

Several godly men of faith had plural wives/concubines.  Joshua & Caleb were the two faithful spies, and survived into the Promised Land.  They were guided by the Holy Spirit (Nu.14:24, 30, 27:18; Jsh.14:13).  1Ch.2:46-49 Caleb had two concubines.  (Caleb’s daughter was Áchsah, cf. Jsh.15:16.)

Manásseh was the firstborn son of Joseph, and grandson of Jacob.  Of the 12 tribes, God allotted his tribe the largest area in the Land! (cf. Jsh.17.)  1Ch.7:14 Manasseh had an Aramean/Syrian concubine.

Wikipedia: Concubinage “Among the Israelites, men commonly acknowledged their concubines, and such women enjoyed the same rights in the house as legitimate wives.  2Sm.3:7 NASB footnote “A concubine was much more than a mistress. In a sense, she was a ‘secondary wife’ (Ex.21:8-10, De.21:11-13). She was considered a member of the household, by an official ceremony of appointment, and she had the rights of a married woman. Concubines were usually acquired by purchase or were captives taken in war. She could be ‘divorced’ summarily, but never as a slave.”  2Sm.3:7 King Saul had a concubine named Rízpah (and other wives – 1Sm.14:50, 2Sm.12:7-8).  A concubine lead-servant was to courteously submit to the first (free) wife, so she wouldn’t be jealous.

Most men were monogamous, having one wife in marriage (at a time).  Yet concubinage was a respected marital option in the OT and ancient world.  It resembles heterosexual civil union, as done in some nations today.  Our English word concubine comes from the Latin word concubina, meaning ‘to lie together’.  But our word concubine means more than that.  The meanings and customary practice of concubinage in various nations may differ from what God authorized millennia ago in scripture.

Jg.8:30-32 “Gideon had 70 sons, for he had many wives. His concubine in Shechém also bore him a son, Abimélech. Gideon died at a good old age.”  (The concubine is called his “maidservant” in Jg.9:18.)  Gill Exposition Jg.8:31 “His concubine, a secondary or half wife; generally taken from handmaids.”  Concubinage & plural wives isn’t adultery…Gideon wasn’t living in sin!  The warrior-judge Gideon was chosen and empowered by God to save Israel out of Midianite oppression (Jg.6:14, 34).  Gideon, who had “many wives”, is listed in He.11:32-33 among the faithful.  The Christian association Gideon’s International, which freely distributes Bibles, is named after this polygynist.

1Sm.1:1-3 Samuel’s father Elkanáh cohabited with two wives, Peninnáh and Hannáh.  Every year he took his family to sacrifice at the Lord’s tabernacle, at Shilóh.  Elkanah was a devout man; he wasn’t living in sin!  Samuel was the eldest son of Elkanah’s second wife Hannah.  Samuel was then fostered by Eli the high priest (1Sm.1:28, 2:11), and became a renowned prophet-judge.  Samuel was born in lawful wedlock, he wasn’t illegitimate!  De.23:2 none illegitimate shall enter the assembly of the Lord.

King Joásh of Judah had two wives.  2Ch.24:1-3 “Joash did what was right in the eyes of the Lord all the days of Jehoiadá the priest. And Jehoiada took two wives for him, and he had sons and daughters.”  The chief priest selected two wives for Joash!  Joash’s cohabitation with two wives didn’t contradict his doing “right in the eyes of the Lord”.  v.15-16 and Jehoiada the priest did well to Israel and to God; he was buried with honor.  Jehoiada hadn’t sinned by giving two wives to the king.

The scriptures reveal that monogamy and polygyny are both lawful marital options, according to Christ’s morality, in His theocracy.  Where He set the rules & regulations.  And Jesus Christ is the same yesterday, today, and forever! (He.13:8)  He’s not fickle and His moral principles don’t flip-flop!

Lauren Heiligenthal writes in her book Evaluating Western Christianity’s Interpretation of Biblical Polygamy, p.17 “While scholars and missiologists [studiers of missions] may suggest that monogamy is God’s ideal, Scripture is neither forthcoming with this claim nor does it prohibit polygamy.”

Later, polygamy was legal throughout the Persian Empire (559–331 BC) of the Intertestamental Period.

But when Jesus the man incarnated, He didn’t set the rules in Roman Empire provinces of the 1^st century AD.  His followers too were and are subject to the (marital) laws of our various nations.  So normally God’s moral option of polygyny isn’t advised in nations where it’s disallowed legally.

Other polygynists are seen in the Bible.  But little is in view in the pagan Greco-Roman culture of the New Testament epistles, where most gentiles legally were to be monogamous.

This topic is continued and concluded in “Polygyny – Lawful in God’s Eyes? (2)”.

 

Wine or Grape Juice in Jesus’ Cup? (2)

This topic was begun in “Wine or Grape Juice in Jesus’ Cup? (1)”.  Part 2 here is the conclusion.

Part 1 identified the two most-used Hebrew Old Testament (OT) terms for “wine”…yáhyin (Strongs h3196) and tiroshé (h8492).  Yayin was fermented wine.  Tirosh usually referred to unfermented grape juice.  Tirosh is called “new wine” in many Bibles.  (Other terms for alcoholic drink were less-used.)

Part 1 also discussed the customary Jewish practice of using wine to celebrate Passover in 1^st century Jerusalem.  Jesus the man was Jewish, and He observed God’s annual Passover (Lk.2:41-42).

In the Greek New Testament (NT) and Greek OT Septúagint/LXX, the term for “wine” is oínos g3631.  It occurs 33 times in the NT.  However, yayin (fermented) and tirosh (unfermented) were both translated as oinos in the OT LXX!  No differentiation was made.  The context determined its meaning.

The NT writers didn’t identify the type of liquid in the “cup” at Jesus’ Last Supper.  “Cup” is potáyreeon g4221, occurring 33 times.  “Cup” as a drinking vessel is seen at the Lord’s Supper: Mt.26:27; Mk.14:23; Lk.22:17, 20; 1Co.10:16, 21, 11:25-28.  No beverage is specified (not oinos).

In Part 2 we’ll discuss uses, concerns, and symbolism of wine from the Bible; also when Christian churches started using grape juice in communion or the eucharist.  (Part 1 material won’t be repeated.)

In Bible times, wine (mixed with water) was used for other celebrations besides Passover.  Jn.2:1-11 Jesus’ first miracle was, He changed water into wine (oinos g3631) at a wedding celebration.  Probably His miracle wine was undiluted.  In Is.1:22, the Lord had negatively compared debased ancient Israel to pure wine diluted with water.  And Jesus didn’t change the Jn.2 water into grape juice.  Jn.2:10 after the guests had drank, they wouldn’t notice any quality difference if it was grape juice.  But they would notice a difference if it was wine.  Jesus wasn’t opposed to wine (in moderation)!

Lk.7:33-35 Jesus was exaggeratedly even called a glutton and a ‘wino’ (oinopótes g3630), a friend of tax collectors & sinners.  Winos drink fermented wine.  In contrast, John the Baptizer didn’t drink wine.

De.14:25-27 rejoicing with wine (h3196 yayin) to celebrate the Lord’s OT feasts was fine!  Included were Levites too.  But priests weren’t allowed to drink wine while on duty (Le.10:8-9; Ezk.44:21).

Wine symbolized Jesus’ blood!  The 19^th century German theologian Augustus Neander wrote of Jesus’ Last Supper (Lk.22:17-20). “The broken bread was to represent His body. The wine is to represent His blood, about to be shed for them.”  Got Questions: What is the Meaning of the Blood of Christ? “The pouring of wine in the cup symbolized the blood of Christ.”  Answers.com: What is the Symbolic Meaning of Wine? “Wine signifies blood and blood signifies life, ‘the life is in the blood’ (Lev.17:14).”

Fermented wine yayin h3196 (not unfermented tirosh h8492) was called the blood of grapes.  Ge.49:10-12 is a prophecy about the future King Messiah Jesus. “The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet, until He comes to whom it belongs. He will wash His garments in wine [h3196], His robes in the blood of grapes.”  That’s meaningful.  Henry Commentary Ge.49:11 “He is the true Vine, wine is the appointed symbol of His blood.”  Poole Commentary “The ‘blood of grapes,’ so the wine is called in Deu.32:14.”  (De.32:14 has a less-used term for fermented red wine, chémer h2561-2.  Chemer wine was at the feast of Babylon’s King Belshazzár in Da.5:1-4, e.g.)

Wine also symbolized God’s divine wrath.  Re.14:9-10 “If anyone worships the beast…he will drink of the wine [g3631] of the wrath of God, which is unmixed in the cup [g4221] of His anger.”  Pure wine of intoxication is in His metaphorical cup of judgment.  Barnes Notes Re.14:10 “Without being diluted with water.”  Re.16:19 “Babylon the great’ was remembered before God, to give her the cup [g4221] of the wine [g3631] of His fierce wrath.”  Also ref Ps.75:8; Is.51:17-22, 63:6; Je.25:15-ff; Ezk.23:31-33.

Is.63:1-6 symbolically reflects blood as the wine of His wrath, not as celebration.  v.6 “drunk”.  v.2 “winepress” (gath h1660) is somewhat a misnomer.  As grapes were pressed, it was grape juice, not wine, which flowed down the drain.  (Usually grapes in the upper vat/receptacle were trodden by a team; but interestingly, in v.3 only One solely does the treading.)

{Sidelight: Just before Jesus’ arrest and crucifixion, He prayed at a place called “Gethsemane”, g1068 (Mt.26:36).  It’s from the OT h1660 gath/winepress and h8081 oil, on the Mount of Olives.  The later olive harvest was perhaps pressed into the same vats as grapes were recently pressed.  Laura Reynolds “Why Are Olive Trees Planted Around Vineyards? “The two crops used a similar processing procedure. As wine press works ends, olive pressing begins.”  Lk.22:42-44 in agony, Jesus sweated drops of blood (cf. hematidrósis) at the place of the press.  Jesus Himself felt so pressed, shedding His blood for us!}

Ex.29:38-42 the twice-daily sacrifice at God’s tent of meeting included a drink offering of fermented wine (yayin h3196).  The drink offering wasn’t grape juice!  In Nu.28:7 this drink offering is called “strong drink” (shekár h7941).  Also see Le.23:13.  ATS Bible Dictionary: Drink Offering “A small quantity of wine, part of which was poured on the sacrifice, and the residue given to the priests.”  It was part of the sacrificial system, prefiguring Christ’s blood sacrifice.

This drink offering libation of wine was poured out (cf. Ezr.7:17), as was Jesus’ shed blood (Jn.19:34; Lk.22:44).  Jesus said in Lk.22:20, “This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in My blood”.  (The apostle Paul also compared his own life to a drink offering poured out, Php.2:17, 2Ti.4:6.)

1Ch.9:29 Levites had charge over the fermented wine (h3196) kept in the temple.  The tirosh h8492 grape juice firstfruits initially tithed to the Levites (Nu.18:12; De.18:4; Ne.10:37) fermented into wine.

Again, there were restrictions for wine-drinking placed upon Aaron and his sons (the priests).  Priests weren’t allowed to serve God in the tabernacle/temple if they’re intoxicated!  Is.28:7 priests and prophets erred through their misuse of wine (h3196) and strong drink (h7941).  1Ti.3:8 deacons in the NT church aren’t to be heavy drinkers.  (Paul advised only a little wine for Timothy, 1Ti.5:23.)

Jewish Christian historian Alfred Edersheim wrote of Jesus’ Last Supper, held in a large furnished upper room of a house (Lk.22:12).  There Jesus instituted the eucharist.  The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, p.809 “Peter and John would find there the wine for the four cups, the cakes of unleavened bread, and probably also ‘the bitter herbs’. The wine was…red, mixed with water, generally in the proportion of one part to two of water.”  Peter, John, and Jesus the man were Jews, here at Passover.

David Stern Jewish New Testament Commentary [JNTC] Lk.22:17a, p.144 “Luke is the only one of the four [gospel] writers describing the establishing of the New Covenant who mentions both a cup of wine before the meal (here) and another after (v.20).”  Wine-drinking was customary at the Lord’s feasts.

The ingathering of the grape harvest occurred in the later summer, prior to the Feast of Ingathering or Booths of the early autumn.  Back then it was something of an ordeal to preserve pure grape juice for 7 months until the Passover next spring!  Joe Thorn A Theology of Wine “Drinking wine was normative.”

However, it was possible to maintain unfermented grape juice (albeit more difficult).  Wayne Jackson Was the Fruit of the Vine Fermented? “It is known from ancient sources, that there were ways of preserving juice, thus preventing fermentation. The ancient Roman statesman, Cato, said: ‘If you wish to have ‘must’ (grape juice) all year, put grape juice in an amphora [narrow-necked jar] and seal the cork with pitch; sink it in a fish pond. After 30 days take it out. It will be grape juice for a whole year.’ (De Agri Cultura CXX)”  Steve Shirley Should Wine or Grape Juice Be Used For Communion? “Heating it [juice] to 150–180° would result in a syrup which could be diluted with water, then drank as unfermented grape juice. Also, keeping it in temperatures below 40° would prevent fermentation.”

Which beverage was used by the church?  Jennifer Tait New Wine, New Wineskins “The early Western church maintained the use of wine and unleavened bread. The Eastern church soon began to use leavened bread. From the 16^th until the 19^th century, the majority of Protestants communed using wine from a common cup and leavened bread. However, in the 19^th century, temperance became teetotalism or total abstinence, moving all alcohol (wine included) into the list of forbidden beverages. Many began to question why a beverage considered dangerous to drink was still used on the Communion table.”

Joe Iovino Methodist History: Controversy, Communion, & Welch’s Grape Juice “In the 1800s, churches faced a dilemma. To combat the epidemic of alcoholism, the temperance movement advocated total abstinence from all alcohol. Raw grape juice stored at room temperature (home refrigerators weren’t available until 1913) naturally ferments into wine. This caused a problem for congregations [taking the Lord’s Supper] not wanting to use anything containing alcohol. ‘Lots of churches just didn’t have communion when grapes were out of season,’ reports Roger Scull.”

Welch Foods, Inc. is named for Thomas Bramwell Welch (1825-1903).  He was a dentist, Methodist minister and “communion steward”, and Prohibitionist.  Wikipedia “In 1869, Welch invented a method of pasteurizing grape juice so that fermentation was stopped, and the drink was non-alcoholic. He persuaded local churches [in Vineland, NJ] to adopt this non-alcoholic ‘wine’ for communion services, calling it ‘Dr. Welch’s Unfermented Wine.”  It became the well-known Welch’s Grape Juice in 1893.

Thus pasteurization made it possible for churches to use grape juice year-round for the Lord’s Supper eucharist.  Most Protestant churches today use grape juice when serving communion.  Over the past 150 years, this relatively recent deviation from the practice of Bible times has become their church tradition.

However, there is evidence that Jewish religious bread and wine meals were held to honor the Messiah in the decades even prior to Jesus’ human birth and His Last Supper.  JNTC Appendix, p.931 says the Jewish community at Qumrán had regular meals in honor of the Messiah, who they expected soon.  Quoting their Dead Sea Scrolls: “When they gather for the Community table…let no man stretch out his hand over the bread and wine before the priest. He shall first stretch out his hand. And afterwards the Messiah of Israel shall stretch out His hands. They shall process according to this rite at every meal where at least ten persons are assembled.”  These were frequent meals.

These Qumran Community meals weren’t Passover meals!  Yet they partook of bread and wine, not grape juice, to honor the Messiah.  Jesus is the Messiah.  Traditionally, wine celebrated Him.

But the representative bread and wine is much more ancient than the 1^st century BC!  In Ge.14:18-19 “Melchisedek the king brought out bread and wine [yayin h3196]; He was priest of the Most High God.”  He served wine, not grape juice (tirosh h8492)!  He shared a (leavened?) bread and wine meal with the uncircumcised gentile/non-Jew Abrám.  The Ps.110:1-4 prophecy is about Jesus. “You are a priest forever according to the order of Melchisedek.” (also see He.6:20.)

Jesus, the Priest-King, is of the order of Melchisedek (not of the in-between Levitical order)!  So way back in the days of father Abraham, even prior to Jacob/Israel and the Jews, a bread and wine meal foreshadowed Christ’s priesthood and rule.  This is significant…we are of the order of Melchisedek!  The archetypal meal wasn’t tied to a recurring religious date or season of the year, e.g. Passover.  Its timing may or may not coincide with other religious observances.  (see “Melchisedek Order Priesthood”.)

Pr.9:1-5 “Wisdom has built her house. She has slaughtered her beasts; she has mixed her wine [h3196, fermented], she has set her table. ‘Come, eat of the bread and drink of the wine [h3196] I have mixed.”  It is wisdom to partake of (symbolic) bread and wine.  Melchisedek did so with Abraham.

In 1Co.11:20-34, drunkenness was a problem in the Corinthian church (v.21).  They were consuming too much wine while celebrating the eucharist at regular love feasts.  Drunkenness can have bad consequences (cf. Ge.9:20-27).  But wine-drinking in moderation is fine (except for Levites on duty).

To conclude…Jesus and His disciples drank wine with His Last Supper (Passover) meal.  International Standard Bible Encyclopedia [ISBE]: Wine “The wine of the Last Supper may be described in modern terms as sweet, red, fermented wine, rather highly diluted.”  Wine was in Jesus’ “cup”.

As a representation of Jesus’ blood and body, taking wine with bread is scripturally acceptable.  Joe Thorn The Lord’s Supper – Wine or Welch’s? “Regarding children, in most of the United States it is not illegal for children to consume alcohol ‘in the performance of a religious ceremony or service.”

However, conscience matters!  Je.35:5-8, 16-19 Jonadáb the son of Recháb commanded the Rechabites to be nomads, enduring hardship and abstaining from wine.  His descendants obeyed their forefather.  Some Christians abstain from wine, meat, card-playing, etc., as a matter of conscience or from fear of excess.  They only use grape juice, not wine, for communion.  We should respect their consciences.

Recovering alcoholics who become Christians, those with health problems and/or taking medications which could conflict with alcohol…should substitute grape juice for wine when taking communion.

Christians celebrate the Lord’s Supper with either wine or grape juice!  Over the years, I’ve used both.  (Again, the NT writers didn’t specify the beverage in the “cup” at Jesus’ Last Supper.)  When taking the eucharist, more important is our attitude of heart.  Yet division may occur when a perhaps well-meaning church custom/tradition becomes a modern form of pharisaic oral law and promotes exclusivism.  Jesus castigated the Pharisees for their oral traditions that contradicted OT scripture.

For more, see “Wine or Grape Juice in Jesus’ Cup? (1)” and the separate topic “Bread and Wine in the Church”.  Also related is “Jesus’ Last Supper Timing”.

Jewish Sects of the 1st Century (1)

Harvard’s late renowned scholar Jacob Neusner wrote in Judaism When Christianity Began, p.5, 50, “Judaism divides into Judaisms….Judaisms that flourished in Second Temple times, before 70 CE, when the Temple was destroyed.”  ‘Judaisms’ plural.  There were several ‘Judaisms’ in the Holy Land.

This two-part topic identifies seven main Jewish religious sects or groups extant in the Land in the 1^st century.  The time when Jesus lived as a Jew and the temple still existed.  Part 1 discusses the Scribes, Pharisees, Sadducees.  Part 2 discusses the Heródians, Zealots, Éssenes, Nazarenes.

#1 SCRIBES: grammateús Strongs g1122, Greek noun.  The term is seen in the Old Testament (OT) Greek Septúagint/LXX, and occurs 67 times in the Greek New Testament (NT).  The OT Hebrew term is Sópherim Strongs h5608 (h5613 Aramaic).

Scribes or Sopherim were writers/recorders, learned in the scriptures.  2Sm.20:25 Shevá was scribe when Zadók was priest in the days of King David.  1Ki.4:3 Shishá’s sons were Solomon’s scribes.  2Ki.18:18 Shebná was scribe for King Hezekiáh of Judah.  2Ki.22:8-13 Shaphán was scribe to Josiáh.

Jewish Encyclopedia: Scribes “The royal officials who were occupied in recording in the archives the proceedings of each day were called scribes….the term ‘scribe’ became synonymous with ‘wise man.”  Scribes were literate, unlike the general populace of Israel and Judah, and more knowledgeable.

The first order of Levitical scribes may have been set up by David, Solomon, or Hezekiah (cf. Pr.25:1).  2Ch.34:13 “Some of the Levites were scribes, officials, and guards.”  Barnes Notes 2Ch.34:13 “A distinct division of the Levitical body has been instituted. The class itself probably originated in the reign of Hezekiah.”  100 years after Hezekiah, Barúch the son of Neriáh was the faithful scribe of Jeremiah the priest (Je.45:1), ca 600 BC.  He’s the traditional author of the apocryphal Book of Baruch.

Previously Israel’s ten tribes disobeyed the Lord’s commandments and consequently were deported into captivity in 721 BC.  Judah was taken captive in 597 BC.  (Prophesied in De.28:15, 36.)  After their Babylonian exile, King Cyrus of Persia allowed Jews to return to the Land with Zerubbabél, ca 538 BC.  Ezra returned ca 457 BC as a royal commissioner from the Persian Empire.  He was sent to investigate conditions in Judea, with authority to administer God’s Law/Toráh to Jewish returnees.

The role of scribes then changed somewhat from that of monarchial Israel & Judah prior to captivity.  Jewish Encyclopedia op.cit. “In the time of Ezra, the designation [‘scribe’] was applied to the body of teachers who…interpreted the Law to the people.”  Scribes/official secretaries became teachers.

Ezra (the name means ‘help’) was a priest and a scribe (Ezr.7:11).  Ezr.7:6 “Ezra…was a scribe skilled in the Law of Moses.”  Ezra led reforms, and instructed the people (ref Ne.8:1-18).

Jews who’d returned to the Holy Land didn’t want to suffer another captivity due to ignorance of, or disobedience to, God’s laws.  The synagogue system was set up to teach the (common) people.

Ezra is traditionally credited with establishing the ‘Men of the Great Assembly/Synagogue’.  It consisted of scribes, sages and a few prophets (120 men?).  This was a legislative body.  They codified the Hebrew scripture canon (OT).  The Great Assembly was succeeded by the judicial Great Sanhédrin (70 men), which arose during the Intertestamental Period and was the Jewish supreme court in the Land.

Scribes, though no longer royal officials, became leaders of society during the time of the Maccabees (post-167 BC).  Scribes were an institution and governing religious class, serving on Sanhedrin courts.  Scribes were ‘guardians of the Law’.  Much of the society was illiterate; scribes were the authorities.

Smith’s Bible Dictionary “Scribes gave attention to study of the Torah, its interpretation, historical interpretation, doctrinal issues, and teaching.”  They helped other Jews learn and obey God’s precepts.

Scribes established organized schools in towns, some adjacent to synagogues.  School teachers were considered ‘Masters’ or ‘Rabbis’.  The “Law and the Prophets”, and the Hagiógrapha/“Writings”, were taught in schools.  (But the “Writings” usually weren’t read in synagogues.)  Obtaining a doctor’s degree from schools resulted in a rabbinical ordination.

These schools still existed in Jesus/Yeshúa’s time.  (also see the topic “Synagogue Influence on the Church”.)

Alfred Edersheim The Life And Times of Jesus the Messiah, p.67 “The Great Assembly had disappeared from the scene. The Sopherim [scribes] had ceased to be a party in power….[their] task was purely ecclesiastical, to preserve their religion.”  Their religion initially was based on the Lord’s OT.

But the scribes overreached in their interpretations of scripture.  They began to add man-made religious traditions & regulations to God’s written word.  They valued their add-ons more than scripture!  Jesus said of scribes and Pharisees in Mt.15:1-ff “You invalidate the word of God for the sake of your tradition”.

Scribes of Jesus’ day were egotistical elitists & bureaucrats (Bible.org: The Scribes)…and they opposed Jesus.  He cautioned His disciples in Lk.20:46-47. “Beware of the scribes who like to walk around in long robes and love respectful greetings in the marketplace, and chief seats in the synagogues, and places of honor at banquets; who devour widow’s houses and for appearance’s sake offer long prayers; these will receive greater condemnation.”  The role and attitude of scribes had changed over the centuries.

Yet 600 years earlier Jeremiah noted “the lying pens of the scribes” (Je.8:8).  Some scribes as recorders & copyists were disregarding God’s written word to advance their agenda even back then.

{Sidelight: The 1^st century scribes/Sopherim were later succeeded by the Masorétes, (rabbinic) scribal scholars.  Masoretes preserved and copied the OT books from ca 550–1050 AD.  This was done in Jerusalem, Babylon, Tiberius, and in the diáspora (dispersion).  They began adding vowel points ca 800 AD, as no Hebrew alphabet letters served solely as vowels.  Masoretes developed the “Masoretic Text” (from the Hebrew masoreth/masórah, meaning ‘tradition’).  The oldest manuscripts date from the 800s AD.  There were two rival versions of the Masoretic Text, the ben Asher and the ben Naphtali (both done at Tiberius on the W shore of the Sea of Galilee).  Wikipedia: Masoretes “The halákhic authority Maimónides [Rámbam] endorsed the ben Asher as superior, although the Egyptian Jewish scholar Saádya Gáon had preferred the ben Naphtali system.”  There’s more than 850 differences between the two versions.  Dr. Paul Wegner, Professor of Old Testament at Kings College in London, writes “Eventually the ben Asher tradition won out”.  The Hebrew Bible Aléppo Codex (900s AD) and Leningrad Codex (1008 AD) both contain the ben Asher version of the Masoretic Text.  (Note: Most OT verses quoted by the NT writers are from the BC old Greek OT, not the later Masoretic Text!)}

#2 PHARISEES: Pharisáios g5330 Greek noun; it occurs 100 times in the NT.  Their opponents called them Perúshim/Pharisees, derived from an Aramaic term meaning ‘separated ones’.  But they took to themselves the OT name Hasídim (h2623), ‘the pious’.  In Psalms, the Hasidim are rendered the saints or godly ones, e.g. Ps.4:3, 31:23.

Pharisees were called ‘the separated’ because ca 145 BC they resisted the Hellenization (Greek cultural influence) of Antíochus Epíphanes from 165 BC.  Alfred Edersheim op. cit., p.5 “Phárisaism…made no secret of its contempt for Hellenists, and openly declared the Grecian far inferior to the Babylonian ‘dispersion.”  Conversely, the Sadducees accepted Hellenization.  And while the Pharisees claimed to be ‘the pious’, the rival Sadducees claimed to be ‘the righteous’ (Edersheim, p.224).

While trying to protect God’s written law from Greek influence, the resisting Pharisees sought to ‘build a fence around the law’.  The fence was a so-called ‘oral law’ which they (wrongly) supposed God had given to Moses, and was handed down.  Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 13:10:6 “Pharisees have delivered to the people a great many observances by succession from their fathers, which are not written in the law of Moses; for that reason the Sadducees reject them.”  Many traditional practices.

Paul exhorted Titus in Ti.1:14 to “not pay attention to Jewish myths and commandments of men who turn away from the truth”.  Oral law is the commandments of men…not God.  Jacob Neusner wrote of the “explicit myth of the dual torah, written and oral. A heretic is someone who rejects the duality”.  The Talmudic Qiddushin 3:16, “A heretic is someone who rejects the duality of torah.”  see the topic “Paul the Apostle (2)”, regarding oral torah.  Pharisees made mandatory both the written and oral torah.

And Pharisees gave these unwritten rules or “traditions of the elders” (Mk.7:5) the priority, as even more binding than the Lord’s written Law!  Mk.7:1-9 they substituted mans’ rules for God’s commands.  Jesus said of them in Mt.23:23…their tithing of garden plants was right; but their forsaking (written) Torah for traditions was wrong.  (However, their oral law instruction wasn’t mandatory for women.)

The oral Torah also tried to explain how-to-do written Torah.  It added details so that sacrifices, rituals, etc., could be performed in an orderly manner.  That part of oral law tradition seems reasonable.

Josephus Antiquities 17:2:4 says there were “above 6,000” strict Pharisees.  (Probably the Pharisees outnumbered the Sadducees.)  Pharisaism was the strictest Jewish sect, Ac.26:5.  They kept aloof from others who weren’t as conscientious about cleanliness.  The Pharisees were less political (compared to the Sadducees).  Pharisees appealed to the masses, to most of the scribes, to the synagogues.

Ac.23:6-10 it’s Pharisees vs Sadducees in the Sanhedrin.  Pharisees believed: the annual Péntecost was on Siván 6 of the Hebrew calendar (not always a Sunday), in resurrection, in the existence of angels with wings, and spirits.  Pharisees had a broad angelólogy and demonology.  (Supposedly they believed that demons at human fingertips liked water.  cf. Lk.8:33 demonized swine ran headlong into the lake.)

Although the Pharisees had their differences with the Sadducees and the Herodians (see Part 2), they joined together against Jesus, who they all viewed as their common enemy.

Mt.23:1-3 Jesus said the scribes and Pharisees seated themselves in Moses’ seat (but Jesus exhorts that they fail to practice what they teach).  Encyclopedia of the Bible: Seat of Moses “The name given to a special chair of honor in the synagogue where the authoritative teacher of the law sat.”  (And conveyed administrative judgments.)  Although most scribes favored the Pharisees, “scribes” and “Pharisees” weren’t synonymous.  Edersheim p.65 “Although generally appearing in company with ‘the Pharisees’, he [Scribe] is not necessarily one of them; for they [Pharisees] represent a religious party, while he [Scribe] has a status and holds an office.”  Scribes were Torah scholars & teachers, and copyists.

In Mt.23, Jesus went on to castigate the scribes and Pharisees with seven woes!  v.4-8 they liked being called “Rabbi”, derived from “rabi” which meant ‘My Master’ (‘Great One’).  It was a title of respect or accolade for Torah scholars.  v.27-28 but Jesus said figuratively they were like whitewashed graves.

Pharisees wrongly claimed that Jesus violated the sabbath, Mt.12:1-13.  Then v.14 “The Pharisees went out and counseled together how they might destroy Him.”  Jesus was drawing people away from them.

Before Paul’s conversion, he’d been a Pharisee, Ac.26:3-5.  Many NT readers today are perplexed when reading Paul’s epistles, in which a written law/oral law mix was sometimes meant.  see “Paul the Apostle (2)”.  The Jewish historian Josephus was a Pharisee.  Jn.3:1 also Nicódemus.  Ac.5:34-40 and Gamaliél.

After 70 AD, Pharisees gradually faded away.  But their doctrine/dogma survives.  Got Questions: “The Pharisees’ legacy lived on. In fact, the Pharisees were responsible for the compilation of the Míshnah, an important document with reference to the continuation of Judaism beyond the destruction of the temple.”  They thought that past temple worship could be substituted by continued study in local Jewish synagogues.  Jewish Virtual Library “They [Pharisees] are the spiritual fathers of modern Judaism.”

#3 SADDUCEES: Saddoukáios g4523 Greek noun, meaning ‘the righteous’.  It occurs 14 times in the NT.  The Sadducees supposedly descended from Sadóc/Zadok (g4524 Greek, h6659 Hebrew).  1Ki.1:39 he was the priest who’d anointed Solomon as king, ca 1000 BC.

The Sadducáic sect arose during the 400-year Intertestamental Period, probably after 150 BC.  They were a more Hellenistic group, having adopted the increasing Greek influence of the Grecian Empire.

No actual Sadducee documents survive.  We learn of them from the writings of their opponents.  And in the NT we see that they opposed Jesus and His disciples.

The Sadducees were political.  They appealed to the: Sanhedrin court, wealthy upper class, priests and temple authority.  Ac.4:1 “As they [Peter and John] were speaking to the people, the priests and the captain of the temple guard and the Sadducees came upon them.”  Sadducees put Jesus’ apostles in jail in Ac.5:17-18. “The high priest rose up along with all his associates from the sect of the Sadducees, and were filled with jealousy. They arrested the apostles and put them in public custody.”

The Sadducees looked only to the Pentateuch (the five books of Moses) as their law source, although they accepted the entire OT.  Sadducees claimed to adhere to the written Law of Moses, not to oral torah, so-called.  But it seems their diligence was sorely lacking dedication.

The Sadducees bitterly opposed the Pharisee party.  In 85 BC, six years of civil war ensued between the Pharisees and the Sadducéan Alexander Jánnaeus, King & High Priest of Jerusalem.  50,000 Judeans were killed before he succumbed.  His widow Salóme turned affairs over to the Pharisees in 76 BC.

A civil war between Alexander’s two sons, Hýrcanus and Aristóbulus, resulted in them going to the Roman General Pompey in Syria in 63 BC.  They wanted him to invade Palestine and slaughter their (Pharisee) opponents.  Some think this is how Rome came into power there, and it remained in power during Jesus’ time.  During His time, Sadducees and Pharisees were able to bearably coexist in the Land.

Sadducee and Pharisee beliefs differed in some respects.  Sadducees observed the annual feast of Pentecost on a Sunday (Pharisees didn’t).  Sadducees didn’t believe: in spirits, in angels as winged heavenly beings, in resurrection or the afterlife.  Lk.20:27 “Sadducees deny there is any resurrection.”

According to Edersheim op. cit. p.220, a basic difference between the Sadducees and Pharisees was…Sadducees emphasized man’s free will, the Pharisees God’s predestination.  Sadducees rejected fate.

Sadducees also objected to the Pharisees’ detailed concerns with ceremonial defilements and purity.

The Sadducees were conservative scriptural literalists; aristocrats (educated) friendly with Rome, and they controlled the temple.  However, not all temple priests were Sadducees.  The Pharisees interpreted more by tradition; they appealed to the common people & women, and controlled the synagogues.

Jesus and John the Baptizer took issue with both sects.  Jesus said in Mt.16:11-12, “Beware of the leaven [teaching] of the Pharisees and Sadducees”.  Mt.3:7 “When He [John the Baptizer] saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming for baptism, he exclaimed to them, ‘You generation of vipers.”

The Pharisees and Sadducees tried to prove that Jesus was evil or make him appear so (cf. Mt.16:1-12).

Jesus disapproved of the example set by both the Pharisee and Sadducee sects.  He had more run-ins with the Pharisees, perhaps because of their preference for the oral law above God’s written word.

Which party had the most control?  Eerdmans Bible Dictionary “The views of the Pharisees prevailed among the common people…the Sadducean priests were compelled to operate according to the Pharisees’ views.”  Another source said “Pharisaical Hillelítes were in control when Messiah walked the earth.”  (Hillél 1 and Shammái founded the two main Pharisaical schools.)  Also Edersheim wrote that Sadducees who held positions generally conformed to the practices of Pharisees.  From his Sketches of Jewish Social Life, p.220, “The Sadducees had to…reckon Pentecost as did their opponents [Pharisees].”

Roman support ended during the Roman–Jewish War of 67–73 AD.  With Rome’s 70 AD destruction of Jerusalem, the Sadducees conclusively lost any control.  (Sadducees were Sad-you-see!)  There was no longer a temple nor an official priesthood.  And by 135 AD, Rome had destroyed much of the Jewish nation.  The Jewish priesthood and upper class who’d favored the Sadducee party became non-existent.

Wikipedia: Sadducees “Their sect is believed to have become extinct some time after the destruction of Herod’s Temple in 70 CE; but it has been speculated that the later Karaítes may have had some roots in, or connections with, Sadducaic views.”

Few followers of Sadducaic principles remained after Jerusalem & Judea fell.  A remnant or offshoot of Sadducee beliefs may be the sect of Karaite Jews today.  Karaites consider themselves as ‘Adherers to the Text’.  Both Sadducees and Karaites reject the oral torah of (rabbinic) Judaism as binding.

This two-part topic about Jewish religious sects and groups is continued & concluded in “Jewish Sects of the 1^st Century (2)”.  In it are discussed the Herodians, Zealots, Essenes, Nazarenes.

Church Structure and Member Functions

Many Christians try to attend church every week or two.  Others attend only occasionally or just at Easter and Christmas.  Some are so turned-off with religion and churchianity…they just stay home.

Many atheists, Jewish anti-missionaries, Muslims, and other non-believers are opposed to people becoming believers in Jesus as Savior.  The institution of church and our assembling together provides a measure of protection for our belief in God and the truths of the Bible.  This topic is about church fundamentals and believer functions, from the New Testament (NT).

The saints of the early church assembled together.  Originally the NT church was a gathering of people…not the building where they met!  The Greek term for church is ekklésia, Strongs g1577, occurring 118 times in the NT.

Lk.4:16 it was Jesus’ custom to attend the formal style of service of His day at synagogue (g4864) on the sabbath (g4521).  This custom resulted from the instruction God gave to Moses/Israel in Le.23:3. “On the 7^th day there is a sabbath of complete rest, a holy convocation. It is a sabbath to the Lord in all your dwellings.”  Jewish synagogues were lay institutions with unpaid elders (h2205 zaqén, Hebrew).  see the topic “Synagogue Influence on the Church”.

Mt.18:15-20 Jesus authorized His own future assemblies or messianic Beit Din (‘House of Judgment’) with zaqen/elders overseeing decisions…to “bind and loose” (forbid and permit), Mt.16:19.  Two or three local elders helped resolve internal disputes and made legal decisions for each local congregation (ref Mt.18:15-18, 1Co.6:1-5).

But Jesus said church leaders aren’t to be lords (Mt.20:25-28).  Jesus is Lord (Ro.10:9).  He is the only Head of the church (Ep.5:23)!  He died and rose again…and His church was launched in Acts 2, ca 30 AD.

In the early church of the 1^st century, a group of believers usually met in a large room or courtyard of a believer’s house.  See Ro.16:5, Col.4:15, Philemon 1:2, 2Jn.1:10 for evidence of house churches.

The apostle Paul planted churches on his missionary journeys.  The churches Paul started were structured (similar to the synagogue pattern).  As Paul departed a city on his journey, a few local elders would emerge to lead & guide that new church group.

In Ac.20:17, 28 Paul instructed the elders [g4245 presbúteros] of Ephesus, “Be on guard for yourselves and for all the flock which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers [g1985 epískopos, bishops], to shepherd the church of God.”  Church overseers/bishops care for the figurative ‘sheep’.  Often one elder was the householder where that church met.

Ti.1:5 Paul instructed the church planter Titus to appoint elders who’d emerged in cities on the island of Crete.  After a period of time, Paul or another church planter (e.g. Peter, Timothy, Titus) would revisit the local group.  Churches grew & spread as believers shared the gospel with family, friends, associates.

Apostles/church planters had spiritual authority.  The Holy Spirit (HS) confirmed them.

Paul wrote to the Corinthian church in 1Co.4:21. “Shall I come to you with a rod, or with love and a spirit of gentleness?”  Later in 2Co.7:13-16, “He [Titus] remembers your obedience, how you received him [Titus] with fear and trembling”.  Also ref Philemon 1:8-9 and 1Ti.5:19-21 regarding authority.

By the time the 1Timothy letter was written, ca 63 AD, many churches were being established throughout the Roman Empire.

Guidelines were to be observed for each local NT assembly.  Although leading men should be honorable, the NT doesn’t indicate that local elders were imbued with the same degree of spiritual authority the apostles/church planters had.

Ti.1:5-9 and 1Ti.3:1-7 distinguish the characteristics of elders & overseers.  1Ti.3:8-13 distinguishes the characteristics of deacons (g1249 diákonos).  Dr. Spiros Zódiates “Deacons in this sense were helpers or servants of the bishops or elders.”  Php.1:1 Paul addressed this letter to the saints, overseers/bishops (plural) and deacons at Phílippi.

It appears the NT church government was more like an oligarchy, not a hierarchy.  Ga.2:7-9 Paul indicated that Peter, John, James apostled mostly physically circumcised Jews; whereas Barnábas & Paul went more to uncircumcised gentiles.

There was no Pope!  The HS is the ‘vicar of Christ’, so to speak.  The apostolic church wasn’t an immoral, indolent, corrupt monopoly.

The Lord gave Jewish and gentile Christians various spiritual gifts & functions via the HS.  Ep.4:11-13 “He gave some apostles, and prophets, and evangelists, and shepherds/pastors, and teachers; for the equipping of the saints for the work of service, to the building up of the body of Christ. ‘Til we all come into the unity of the faith.”  Many of the functions indicated in Ep.4:11-13 are performed by elders.

In addition to the NT model eldership structure, the HS has also blessed and gifted the church.  Anointing with oil while praying for the sick to be healed is an example of a local function done by elders, Ja.5:14-16.

Yet, in a sense, all Christians are priests in God’s holy royal priesthood (1Pe.2:5, 9)!

Several believer functions are listed in 1Co.12:27-31.  These functions and gifts are distributed by the HS among the saints (in local areas).  1Co.12:27-31 “God has appointed in the church, first apostles, second prophets, third teachers, then workers of miracles, gifts of healings, admins, tongues.”  Yes, miracles & healings are for the church (Ja.5:14-16).  see “Spiritual Gifts and ‘Tongues”.

Also Ro.12:4-8, 13 is in regards to believer functions. “Just as we have many members in one body and all the members don’t have the same function, so we, who are many, are one body in Christ. We have gifts that differ according to the grace given to us.”  Here Paul includes serving, exhorting, giving, contributing to the needs of others, hospitality, etc.  also see “Female Roles in the Early Church.”

1Co.12:29-30 not all Christians are apostles, or prophets, or teachers, etc.; all aren’t pastors; all don’t speak in tongues.  All haven’t been given evangelistic gifts or talk about Jesus well one-on-one.  Those who don’t speak in tongues or evangelize well, for example, shouldn’t be made to feel inadequate.

Paul’s summation in 1Co.14:1, “Pursue love, yet desire spiritual gifts”.  It’s not one or the other.  It’s spiritual gifts and love…both.  The various gifts and love from the HS enables those so gifted to spread the gospel and knit the church together in godly love.  Personal evangelism (by those who have that gift) is key to a living and growing church.  Of note, it wasn’t the apostles who evangelized in Ac.8:1-4.  also see “Evangelism in the Apostolic Church”.

Gentile peoples come from backgrounds of different cultures, customs and beliefs.  Even the Jews had their own sects.  (see “Jewish Sects of the 1^st Century”.)  As the gospel went to the nations, the result was a much diverse group coming into the church at large.  And differing customs can cause some disunity.  Also see “Doctrinal Disunity Impacts Evangelism”.

Jesus prayed there would be unity.  Jn.17:11 “Holy Father, keep them in Your name, that they may be one.”  Continuing in Jn.17:22-23, “That they may be one, just as We are one, that they may be perfected in unity”.  Jesus prayed that all Christians would become unified, as one in Spirit with God.

Paul didn’t charge money for the gospel.  Nor did he cause division for the church in regards to points of Levitical ceremonial laws or Judaism’s oral traditions from his background.  1Co.9:18-23 “When I preach the gospel I offer the gospel without charge. To the Jews I became as a Jew, though not being myself under [man-made oral?] law; to those [gentiles] without law as without [oral?] law, though not being without the [written] law of God….that I may by all means save some.”  Paul was willing to set aside Jewish oral traditions (but not the Lord’s written principles) to help grow God’s Kingdom.

Our Christian journey is a process of personal growth and learning.  There were big differences and some problems, for example, among the seven churches of western Turkey (Rev.2–3)!  Yet they were all still Christ’s churches (Rev.1:13, 20), though some desperately needed to repent more fully.

All Christian churches today lay claim to the Bible as the written word of God.  This written word, as inspired by the HS, is the universal standard and unifying instruction guide for the Body of Christ.  As Jesus & Paul affirmed when referring to the Old Testament…“It is written!” (e.g. Mt.4:4, Ro.3:10.)

But to fully obey God’s word, we must be willing to lay aside traditional (and nationalistic) differences which contradict His word.  see “Governmental Loyalty for Christians”.  Also we should be willing to de-emphasize any differences regarding non-salvation issues so-called, and speculations.

Jesus said in Jn.13:34-35, “By this all men will know that you are My disciples, if you have love one for another”.  What is godly love?  1Jn.5:3 provides a definition of true godly love. “This is the love of God, that you keep His commandments.”  As we obey God while loving each other, and do our part to spread the gospel…the Kingdom of God will be expressed more and more.  The church has been called the Kingdom of God in miniature.  (see “Kingdom of God” and “Love – Godly Love”.)

Although there are apostles, elders, etc., the bottom line is…all believers are necessary parts of the Body of Christ…whether they’re an eye or a hand or a part less noticeable (1Co.12:20-25).  As our body parts come to the aid and defense of our physical body; the church provides protection from false teaching, and from those who reject Jesus as Savior.  Our local assembly is part of our spiritual immune system.

God’s people are exhorted to maintain the habit of gathering together regularly in an approved manner, based upon what we see in the NT.  Individually a believing member may be a figurative hand, or finger, foot, toe, ear, lung, etc., of the Body of Christ.  (Christ is the Head.)  But no body part can exist alone!  Each group or congregation is a local body where believers are to function in sync with each other.

The writer to the Hebrews urged believers to meet & commune together.  He.10:24-25 “Let us consider how to stimulate one another to love and good works, not forsaking our own assembling together.”

We’re to share in a unified local body.  Through the HS within us, we can be living examples of God’s written principles in our thoughts, words, actions, conduct and habits.  Then our purpose and destiny will be…we ourselves unified together with God for all eternity!  What a glorious future we have!

So let’s look to spread the gospel as the opportunity arises…and carry-on the church practice of meeting together, as did the New Testament saints who went before us.

Synagogue Influence on the Church

Many concepts and functions extant in Christian churches today are adapted from 1^st century Jewish sýnagogues.  Early Christianity was viewed as part of Jewish sectarianism.  The beginnings of conversion to Christianity outside the synagogue aren’t clearly visible from scripture.  No New Testament writer describes any mass conversion of gentiles (or God-fearers) outside the synagogue!

The word synagogue (Strongs g4864) is actually a Greek term, not a Hebrew term.  It occurs 57 times in the New Testament (NT).  Eight synagogues are named in the NT where Paul is at synagogue.  Initially a synagogue was an assembly or congregation of people.

Later it came to mean a building or meeting place, as did the word church.  The Greek term which is rendered church in English is ekklésia (g1577), occurring 118 times in the NT.  Initially an ekklesia was a gathering of citizens (not a church building).

In the Old Testament (OT), the general Hebrew term for an assembly, company, or organized body of people is qahál (h6951).  It occurs 123 times.  The BC Jewish translators of the old Greek version that became the Septúagint/LXX rendered qahal as ekklesia 87 times, and as synagogue 36 times.  For example, De.5:22 LXX “These words the Lord spoke to all the assembly [synagogue] of you in the mountain.”  The Greek terms synagogue and ekklesia were somewhat synonymous.

In modern parlance, a synagogue has come to mean a place of worship and study for Jews, whereas a church usually means a place of worship for Christians.

The synagogue system began sometime after the period of Babylonian captivity, but is unmentioned as such in the KJV OT.  Anciently the city gates were public meeting places and the site of judicial courts (ref Ru.4:1-2).  City gates and prayer houses were perhaps the forerunners of synagogues.  (Also later there were judicial courts within synagogues.)

Two main reasons why synagogues were set up: 1) To teach the people the Lord’s Toráh/Law, in hopes they wouldn’t ignorantly disobey Him and again be sent into captivity.  2) The Greek king Antíochus Epíphanes in 175 BC replaced the priest of Zadók with his own high priest (Jason), breaking the commanded family line of Aaronic succession.  High priests then would no longer serve for life, but were appointed and dismissed at the whims of the ruling power.  These priests usually supported the ruling power, instead of having allegiance to God and the Jewish people.  Priests controlled the temple.  With the temple priesthood viewed as corrupt by many, synagogues started cropping up.

Unlike the priesthood, the synagogue was mostly an unpaid lay institution, in the hands of elders (zakén h2205, Hebrew).  It required 10 men (a minyán) to form a synagogue (cf. Ru.4:2).

It is estimated that 20% of 1^st century Jews regularly attended synagogue.  According to the Talmud, there were around 400 synagogues in Jerusalem in the 1^st century.  Mt.23:1, 6 Jesus said the scribes & Pharisees loved the chief seats in the synagogues.  (Also see the topic “Jewish Sects of the 1^st Century”.)

Many synagogues were rectangular buildings with a women’s gallery at the north end of the structure.  The Court of the Women in the temple precinct was the prototype for this gallery.  Also some synagogues were in houses.

The synagogue pattern of service resembled the temple service, but there were no sacrifices.  Prayer, blessings, reading from the Torah & Prophets (rarely the Writings), homily teaching (sermon deráhsha) were components of the service.  The favorite teaching mode was a charúz (h2737, SSol.1:10), described as the stringing together of scriptures or passages as ‘pearls’ in a form of chain reference.

We also see these components of services present in Christian churches.  (It is said the temple itself even had a pneumatic organ, and Jewish priests wearing robes would chant.)

Jesus taught in synagogues (and at the temple precinct), e.g. Jn.18:20.  ref Lk.4:15-16, 20-21 Jesus was teaching in the synagogues.  Scripture readers in synagogues would customarily stand up to read.

In Ac.13:14-16, 27 the Law and the Prophets of the OT were read in the synagogue at Pisidían Antioch on the sabbath (the reading preceded Paul’s discourse).  Ac.15:21 the Law portion which Christ had given to Moses (the Péntateuch in the old Greek and LXX) was read in synagogues of cities outside the Holy Land too.  Paul admonished Timothy in Ephesus in 1Ti.4:13-16. “Give attention to the [public] reading of scripture and to your teaching.”

At that time, the ‘scriptures’ known by the early church were primarily the OT.  This practice of reading scripture and teaching was carried over into the NT church.  Charles Bell writes, “Christians maintained with little change this same liturgy; the places were almost indistinguishable”.  (also see the topics “Church Meetings of the Apostolic Age” and “Church Structure and Member Functions”.)

Each synagogue elected (for life sometimes) its chief administrator or ordained nási/ruler (ar-kee-syn-ág-o-gos, g752).  Jesus’ relative James/Jacob is said to have been an esteemed ruler in Jerusalem.  Sometimes a nasi was a regular teacher.  Lk.8:41 Jáirus was an archisynagogos/ruler.  (Jesus raised-up his daughter, who had just died.)

Other synagogue functions/positions were (there may be some overlap): A shaliách was an emissary sent forth (cf. h7971), like an apostle or migratory evangelist.  A maggíd was a preacher or teacher.  These maggid attracted a following of disciples/pupils/devoted learners/talmidim (h8527, 1Ch.25:8) who desired to become completely like their rábbi or prophetic teacher in understanding and ethical conduct.  Jesus’ disciples called Him “Rabbi”/Master (Jn.1:38).  Jesus was a maggid too.  A man said to Jesus in Mt.8:19, “Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go”.  Usually students chose a maggid, but Jesus did the choosing of His 12 disciples, e.g. Mk.2:14.  A meturgan or language interpreter stood near the readers & teachers; these spoke the scriptures or message ‘in his ear’. (cf. Mt.10:27, Ne.8:8.)

At least three synagogue párnasin or álmoners, knowledgeable in scripture, cared for the poor and distributed alms.  Collections for the poor were put in the poor box or taken up.  ref 1Co.16:1-2 where collections were made on Sunday (not on the 7^th day sabbath).  In addition to meeting on the sabbath, some synagogues had more than one weekly service.

The first seven were called the ‘seven good men of the city’ (from the Talmud).  Ac.6:1-6 “Select seven men of good reputation.”  JFB Commentary “The parnasin of the synagogue, like the ancient ‘deacon’ of the church, took care of the poor.”  This was a common Jewish appointment, and a prototype for deacons.  Later, Paul gave instructions about deacons serving in the Christian church, 1Ti.3:8-10.

So much of what is commonly thought of as new for the church in the NT…wasn’t new!  Excavations indicate some synagogues had banquet or eating areas.  For Jewish Christians and the church, the synagogue custom of communal meals on a weekly or monthly basis (with the Lord’s Supper added) became the NT love feasts.  ref Jude 12 “love feasts”, and 1Co.11:26, 33 bread & wine with eating.  (see the topics “Bread and Wine in the Church” and “Wine or Grape Juice in Jesus’ Cup?”.)

Synagogue judicial courts exercised authority in some matters, limited by the Roman ruling power.  But only Roman authority could condemn Jesus.  (Since Jesus was a Galilean, the Jerusalem synagogue court authority in Judea couldn’t condemn Him to death.)

According to Dr. Ron Moseley, “In the synagogue structure three leaders would join together to form a tribunal for judging cases concerning money, theft, immorality, admission of proselytes, laying on of hands (etc.)”.  This judicial practice is seen in Mt.18:15-20, and in 1Co.6:1-5 for the church.

Ac.18:1, 4, 8, 17 Críspus and Sosthénes had been synagogue rulers/nasi in Corinth.  1Co.1:1, 14 they both became Jewish Christians (Messianic Jews).  They’d known the synagogue tribunal process (e.g. 1Co.5:12-13).  Timothy, a church planter, also was involved in church judicial decisions (1Ti.5:19-20).

Only zaken/elders voted in the synagogue.  Each local elder had one vote (two brothers who were both elders shared one vote).

In Lk.21:12 & Jn.9:22, Jesus said Jewish Christians would eventually be brought before synagogue courts, and put out of synagogues.  Ac.26:11 Paul (when he was Saul) had been a persecutor of Jews who believed Yeshúa/Jesus is the Messiah.  Paul later became a leader of the believing “sect of the Nazarénes” (Ac.24:5).  Again, early Christianity was considered a Jewish sect.

Jewish Christians and some God-fearers were able to continue attending synagogue for a while, as well as meeting among themselves.  As persecution in synagogues increased, they left.  Believers kept meeting together (He.10:25), often in houses.  (also see “Sabbath Day Became Sunday in Rome”.)

Some Jewish Christians called their own assemblies “synagogues”.  In Ja.2:2, James used the Greek term synagogue for the meeting of believers. “If a man comes into your assembly [synagogue g4864]….”  (Originally a “synagogue” was an assembly, not a building.)

It’s important to understand that the New Covenant is made “with the house of Israel and the house of Judah” (Je.31:31, He.8:8).  We gentiles are “grafted-in”, according to Paul in Ro.11:17.

Other synagogue-type traditions were given by the Holy Spirit to saints in cities of the gentiles.  Zaken were unpaid elders/overseers/shepherds, usually age 40 and over.  Ti.1:5-9 Paul instructed Titus to appoint elders in all cities.  (See 1Ti.3:1-7 for qualifications of overseers.)  It is said these zaken/elders could be paid to teach (e.g. synagogue schools), but not to shepherd.  Perhaps 1Ti.5:17-18 indicates there were some exceptions, or functions were not clearly defined throughout all churches in the Roman Empire.  Generally, elders and pastors in the early church were not a paid professional clergy!

The chazán (presbyter & public minister) prayed and spoke behind a wooden pulpit.  In Ne.8:1-5, we read of a lengthy service in the days of Ezra.  (This has served as a prototype for some churches.)  The chazan customarily assigned Torah readings, etc.  Traditionally he selected seven readers each sabbath – one priest, one Levite, five common Israelites (a literate competent woman also may be allowed to read).  In the 1^st century, usually the chazan wasn’t a paid clergyman, whereas the cántor today is paid.

The chazan stood by to oversee the scripture reading (cf. Lk.4:17, 20).  Some historians think the common usage of the terms for overseer, minister, messenger/angel (malák) may tie back to the chazan.  Re.1:20, 2:1, 8, 12, 18,  3:1, 7, 14 “To the angel [messenger] of the church at….”  Benson Commentary Re.2:1 “To the pastor, presiding elder, or bishop, called an angel because he was God’s messenger to the people.”  Poole Commentary Re.1:20 “To interpret the term ‘angels’ by nature, seems not agreeable. Christ would never have ordered John to charge them [supernatural angels]…to be faithful unto death [Re.2:1, 10].  Cambridge Bible Re.2:1 “Likelier he would be one appointed by Timothy [at Ephesus 1Ti.1:3, 2Ti.4:9-13].”  Vincent Word Studies Re.1:20 “The officials known as angels or messengers of the synagogue, transferred to the Christian church.”

But perhaps the nasi/ruler is meant by “angel” (or messenger) in Re.2, not the chazan.  Again, historians see some position duties as overlapping.  Timothy was to be reading & teaching in Ephesus (1Ti.4:13-16), not long before Paul’s death.  Ac.18:19 previously Paul himself had probably seen this practice being done at an Ephesus synagogue.

Dr. Moseley notes in The Jewish Background of Christian Baptism that the church owes to its Jewish beginnings “such items as Messiah, Scripture, canon, liturgy, altar, pulpit, church offices, songs, offerings, the Lord’s Supper, as well as baptism.”

To conclude: Early synagogues were controlled by the laity.  But through the centuries, the Christian church clergy transformed these member functions of expertise & authority into large salaried hierarchies (sometimes abusive).

The early church was hierarchical only as it was familial.  1Ti.5:1-3 reflects fathers, mothers, brothers, sisters as the church family.  Respect, authority, and order are necessary for the well-being of the household of saints, just as for a family.  And a family household also is a lay institution.  Christian churches are local and are family – all are brothers & sisters in the Lord through the Holy Spirit.

The apostolic era New Testament practices and customs given to the (Jewish) saints by the Holy Spirit is our scriptural model for the church.

Tithe to Church and State

We want God to bless us so that our needs and wants are met…both now in these physical lives and forever.  But many people who trust in Jesus for salvation aren’t prospering.  Some barely get by from week to week.

There’s a Biblical financial principle we can follow which results in blessings and adequate provision.  It’s the tithing or giving principle.  The word tithe comes down to us from the Old English term for tenth.  According to scripture, the tithing concept involves more than giving money to a church denomination…it also involves government (govt)!

Abraham lived around 2000 BC.  It is thought that primitive nomads in ancient Canáan had no regular taxation system.  Presents were voluntarily given to the more powerful in exchange for protection.  Itinerant merchants paid tolls on goods.  Ge.14:18-20 “Melchisedek king of Salem was priest of God Most High.”  Abrám gave a tenth or tithe of war spoils (He.7:4) to the Priest/King Melchisedek…a greater Protector than Abram!  There was no clear separation of church and state indicated in the order of Melchisedek!  This occasion set the precedent for Biblical tithing.

The apostle Paul wrote, Ro.4:16 “Abraham who is the father of us all”.  The gentile/non-Jew Abraham is our father too, in a spiritual sense.  Ga.3:7 “Those who are of faith are the sons of Abraham.”

Ge.28:20-22 Abraham’s grandson Jacob would tithe all (not just on spoils).  He said, “Of all that You give me, I will surely give a tenth to Thee”.  These Genesis passages are very significant; they reflect a tithing to God practiced prior to the Old Covenant Law of Moses!  Tithing wasn’t only Levitical.

Anciently Jacob/Israel’s sons grew into a nation.  Ex.19:5-6 Septúagint regarding it, if obedient, “You shall be to Me a royal priesthood and a holy nation”.  (v.22-24 anciently family heads served as priests, prior to the Levitical priesthood.)  Ex.24:4-5 priests perform religious mediation & acts of worship.

Ex.28:1 the Levite Aaron and his sons were then specifically appointed by God as priests in ancient Israel.  Nu.3:5-13 the other Levites, not of Aaron’s clan, assisted the priests.  De.18:1-2 the Levites’ inheritance was…the Lord YHVH!  Le.27:30-32 the Lord’s portion was the inheritance of the priests & Levites in Israel.

Le.25:23 the Land belonged to God, not to men.  Israelites were Land lessees or renters, not owners.  God’s ownership fee was the tithes paid by Israelites.  Tithes were given to the Levites, who had no land inheritance (unlike the other tribes of Israel).  Nu.35:6-8 Levites served in various capacities from 48 cities in the Land (of Canaan).

De.12:17-19, 14:22-29 ancient Israel’s two tithes (or possibly three at times) were paid on the increase of crops and livestock (not on capital).

It is thought the 1^st tithe/10% was shared by both the tithe-payer and Levites at the central location of the pilgrim feasts…perhaps 5–6% was for the tithe-payer’s food at the sanctuary environs and his travel, and 4–5% for Levites.

De.14:28-29, 26:12 Septuagint/LXX Tithe-payers gave a 2^nd tithe (10% of the remaining net increase/income) to Levites and the disadvantaged (widows, orphans, etc.) in towns every 3^rd year, or possibly in years #2 and #6 of each 7-year land cycle.  (There may not have been a tithe on produce for the 7^th year Land sabbath when the Land wasn’t sown, Le.25:4-6.)

{Sidelight: Unlike the LXX De.26:12, the apocryphal Tobit 1:7-8 indicates there were 3 tithes: The 1^st was paid by land lessees/renters to Levites. (This would result in a higher tax rate overall, cf. 1Sm.8:15-17).  A 2^nd tithe was spent by the land lessees attending the three pilgrim feasts at the central sanctuary.  A 3^rd tithe was paid to Levites in towns in some years for distribution to the disadvantaged & guests.  It may be that a 2 or 3 tithe system was customarily practiced during different periods of Israel’s history.}

1Ch.15:16, 23:3-5, 19, 26:31-32 show the Levites were the civil service tribe too.  They were musicians, guards, judges, theocracy govt officials & administrators, craftsmen, herdsmen (Nu.35:2-3), educators (De.33:8, 10).  Lk.5:27 the Levite (Matthew) collected customs, likely as a govt official.  Most of the peoples’ tithe/tax supported civil authorities…not the priests!  Moses the Levite had been the Lord’s govt leader and priest/mediator, Ps.99:6 & Ga.3:19.  (God had ordained human govt/justice in Ge.9:6.)

Nu.18:25-28 out of the tithes received from the Land lessees, the Levites/govt then paid a tenth to the Aaronites/priests.  The priests didn’t tithe…the buck stopped at the priests.  De.14:28 of the (2^nd) tithe periodically received in towns, the Levites also distributed 1/10 of that 2^nd tenth to priests, bringing it (with firstfruits & firstlings) to the sanctuary storehouse as provision for priests serving in their courses throughout the year (Ne.10:34-39 & 2Ch.31:9-12, 19).  It seems Mal.2:8, 3:3, 6, 8-10 was addressed primarily to the Levites who should have been paying 1/10 of 1/10 to the priestly descendants of Aaron; and perhaps Malachi addressed secondarily the Land lessees who were lax in their tithing obligations.

So the tithe/tax recipients in ancient Israel were first the govt and then the priests…state and church.  Again, the priests were the Aaronide clan among the Levites/govt.  The ancient Kingdom religious leaders, the priests, received only 1/10 of 1/10…that is…1% (plus offerings, etc.)!

Again, only Land lessees were required to tithe to the Levites.

Did women tithe?  Nu.27:8 produce on land inherited by a daughter (because she had no brother to inherit) may have been tithed.  Also, any crops grown in the field purchased by the good wife of Pr.31:16.

Most servants didn’t pay tithes; but did give offerings and paid the other required taxes.

Some of the poor received tithes as part of God’s welfare system (De.26:12).

It doesn’t appear that wild game, fish caught in the seas, or wages earned by laborers were tithed in ancient Israel.

Yet previously, Abraham was rich in silver & gold (Ge.13:2), and Jacob was exceedingly prosperous (Ge.30:43)…those two semi-nomad herdsmen traveling the trade routes tithed!  (Upon all increase?)

Nu.31:25-47 also in Israel there was a tax on war spoils: 0.2% was paid by Israelite warriors to priests, 2.0% was paid by non-warriors to Levites…again a 1 to 10 ratio.  God is orderly!

Ex.30:12-16, Ne.10:32-33 a flat head tax paid by men of military age (as a form of atonement) helped support the tabernacle.  Of this, the rich didn’t pay more and the poor didn’t pay less…as Christ’s atoning sacrifice now applies equally to all income classes.  This tax later became the temple tax.  Mt.17:24-27 although Jesus is the Son of the Kingdom, this poll tax amount (which was enough for both He and Peter) miraculously appeared in a fish on this occasion!

Summing it up, the average annual levy for Land lessees in ancient Israel was perhaps 10% of their net income.  This consisted of: the 4–5% portion of 1^st tithe they shared with civil Levites at pilgrim feasts, the approximately 3% given to Levites in towns (annualizing the 10% given every 3^rd year), and the 2+% in the form of temple tax, firstfruits, firstlings, offerings, etc.

Some Bible historians think the 2^nd tithe (De.26:12 LXX) was spent by land lessees at pilgrim feasts in years #1, 2, 4, 5 of each 7-year cycle…and the same tithe was given to the poor in towns in years #3 and #6.  However, verses such as De.16:5, 16, Nu.9:13-14, Lk.2:41 indicate pilgrim feasts were to be attended (at one location) every year, not skipping years #3 and #6.

Now…the New Covenant is unlike the Old Covenant given to ancient Israel.  Israel failed to obey God.  He.7:1-18 gentiles don’t tithe to Levites!  Jesus is the high priest in the order of Melchisedek. (see the topic “Melchisedek Order Priesthood”.)  Again, the semi-nomad gentile Abram/Abraham, the father of the faithful, gave a tenth to Melchisedek prior to Moses.  And Melchisedek/Jesus lives on, He.7:8!

Where is Jesus Christ manifesting Himself or doing His work?  Col.1:27 “Christ in you.”  To what do all Christians belong?  According to 1Pe.2:5, 9, 4:16, now the Christian church is God’s royal priesthood.  Christians are to perform spiritual acts using God-given gifts.  Ro.12:1 presenting ourselves as living sacrifices is our service of worship.  2Ch.31:2 Levites (who received & paid tithes) praised.  He.13:15-16 the New Testament (NT) royal priesthood gives sacrifices of praise, doing good, sharing.

Paul wrote in Ep.1:11, “We too have obtained an inheritance”. (also Ro.8:17.)  Ga.3:18 & Ac.7:2-5 so did nomadic Abraham (a tither) await his promised inheritance.  The Lord is the inheritance of both the Levites and the New Covenant royal priesthood!

Let’s see who all comprises the NT royal priesthood: 1Ti.5:17-18 “Let the elders who preside well be worthy of double honor, especially those who work hard at preaching and teaching.”  Preaching & teaching elders are part of it.  “Honor” can be financial, e.g. Mk.7:9-11 & Ge.13:2.  Also in Ex.20:12 & De.5:16, honor (“your father and mother”) is the same Hebrew term used in Ge.13:2 where Abram was very honored or rich!

1Ti.5:3 widows are part of it too.  1Jn.3:17, Ja.2:15-16 needy saints receive ‘2^nd tithe’ type funds.  Ro.16:1-2 females and deacons too act as living sacrifices in the royal priesthood.  2Co.8:4 also saints in distress.  Ro.15:26 contributions & gifts for poor saints.

Christian tithing/giving is to both the royal priesthood and the state/nation in which we reside.  However, there are no verses in the canon of scripture which say laymen ever paid a tithe solely for religious authorities/priests or to a church!  That may be a shocking realization!  Not 10% to the church.

Christians today pay taxes to non-theocratic governments, not to Levitical civil leaders.  Our govts then provide benefits, welfare programs, entitlements, etc. for citizens.  Included among these recipients are Christian citizens who receive disability checks, unemployment benefits, tax credits, etc.!  But in many non-theocratic modern nations, the tax/tithe paid to the state isn’t shared with the church…unlike scriptural examples we’ve referenced!  1Pe.2:17 Peter said to honor all, the king or state too, but to especially love our brothers & sisters in the royal priesthood, the household of faith (Ga.6:10).

So over and above our ‘tithe’ obligations to our govts, so to speak…Christians give to other Christians, the church, and to good causes.  After we’ve paid our various taxes or received our tax refund in the spring, we might ask ourselves whether we’d given/tithed close to 10% (as a rule of thumb) to a combination of the govt and other Christians/the royal priesthood.  (It’s nearly impossible to gauge what percentage of our tithe/tax dollars are given by the govt in turn to Christians in the form of benefit checks, welfare programs, etc.)  Yet govt funding/entitlements don’t spread the gospel sufficiently.

1Co.9:13-14 Christians give to Christian evangelists too in the order of Melchisedek.  Paul compared this by analogy to the Aaronide priests being given food or paid in the old Levitical order.  Ga.6:6 also sharing good things with Christian teachers is reminiscent of Israel sharing good with their Levitical educators and others in their towns (e.g. De.26:11-12).

How is the giver benefited?  It’s been said, ‘The success of your financial future is directly related to obeying God’s principles of giving/tithing’.  Pr.3:9-10 barns will be filled with plenty.  Is.48:17 God teaches us to prosper.  De.28:11-12 and so-called ‘spiritual Israel’ is also blessed.  De.8:18 even the power & health to make wealth comes from God!  Ps.112:1-3 children of the righteous will be blessed.  Pr.28:27 there’s no lack for those helping the poor (again, De.26:12).

Pp.4:15-19 “And my God shall provide all your needs according to His riches.”  A word of caution: Riches shouldn’t be our goal or trust.  1Ti.6:7-10 “The love of money is a root of evil.”  Money in and of itself isn’t wrong…loving money is.  (see the series, “Money”.)  Rather, trust in God, 1Ti.6:17 “Who richly supplies us with all things to enjoy”.  Job.36:10-11 repentance and obedience brings prosperity.  Pr.13:18 but neglecting the Lord’s instructions/discipline can result in poverty.

Those Jewish leaders in Mt.23:23 should’ve tithed their garden spices (a form of ‘crop’ produce) to Levites.  The Levites should’ve then paid the priests.  We should pay/tithe (just) taxes and give!  Jesus said in Lk.20:25, to first “render to Caesar things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s”.  Jesus too affirms paying state and church.  (And many give to God on net ‘after-tax’ income.)

So we’ve read that tithe/tax to state and church was: for gentiles with king/priest Melchisedek…in God’s theocracy of ancient Israel with Levites/priests…seen in Jesus’ words during the Roman Empire.  But most govts today aren’t paying benefits to the church, which could then be used by churches collectively to pay their operating expenses and spread the gospel.  Yet Biblical tithing was to church and state both.

We can release God’s abundant blessing on our lives by following these Biblical financial principles.  Metaphorically it’s a spiritual matter of sowing seed through giving…and then reaping the harvest of blessing from God!  We usually eat fruit, not seeds!  Sow seed into the lives of others, and we’ll reap abundant benefits!  Lk.6:38 Give, and it will also be given unto us…it’s a command and a promise!  Ac.20:35 “It is more blessed to give than to receive.”  Givers in general are blessed.

If you’re not already following this principle, we can begin now.  The initial checks of giving/tithing may be hard to write, especially if you’re in debt.  But we can determine to follow the Lord in this matter!  Mal.3:10 “Prove Me now in this’, says the Lord of hosts.”  Let’s not be stingy…God is faithful!  The blessings will come accordingly.

God has a plan for our financial success, but we must cooperate to bring it to pass.  Let’s not eat our seed!  Sow, and expect a harvest in return!  Paul wrote in Ga.6:7, “Whatever a man sows, he will also reap”.  We reap what we sow.  Also 2Co.9:6-11 “He who sows sparingly shall also reap sparingly; and he who sows bountifully shall also reap bountifully.”  Sow in faith, and reap bountifully, as Paul said.

God is true to His Word.  Some famous people gave more & more, and blessings overflowed to them!  e.g. William Colgate (Colgate-Palmolive), James Kraft (Kraft foods), H.J. Heinz (ketchup) started out giving 10%…and then more.  Some have felt led to give large amounts of money to a personal ministry.  (Mk.12:41-44 this widow’s mite was all her money!)  May the Lord guide us in regards to whom we tithe/give (after we pay “Caesar”/govt).  We too can be financial successes through God’s blessings!

Re.1:6 Jesus has “Made us to be a kingdom of priests to His God and Father”.  Believers are the priests in the royal priesthood of the Lord.  We’re so blessed!