Paul the Apostle (4) – Discrepancies

This is the series continuation of “Paul the Apostle (1) – Law and Works”, “Paul the Apostle (2) – The Chameleon?”, “Paul the Apostle (3) – Missteps”.  The material in those three Parts isn’t repeated here.  Those should be read first.  Although I’ve defended Paul in this series, my intent is to show an objective impartial view of his writings.  Here we’ll focus on Paul’s scriptural discrepancies and contradictions.

Ga.4:21-29 Paul’s allegory is flawed.  Allegories convey symbolic or further meanings, without nullifying or distorting the literal plain sense.  But Paul reverses the Old Testament (OT) lineage seen in both the Hebrew Masorétic text and the Greek Septúagint/LXX.  In scripture, Hagar was Sarah’s Egyptian maid.  Hagar and her son Ishmaél (Ge.16:1, 15) clearly weren’t the ancestors of Moses/Israel, to whom the Lord centuries later gave His covenant law at Mt Sinai.  The lineage of Moses, recipient of the law, was: Sarah – Isaac – Jacob/Israel – Levi – Koháth – Amrám – Moses.  Connect Ge.21:3, 25:26, 29:21, 34, 46:11, Ex.6:18-20, 19:20-ff.  God told Abraham the covenant wouldn’t be through Hagar – Ishmael, Ge.17:18-21.  But in Ga.4:24-25, Paul wrote that Hagar represents “Mt Sinai in Arabia”.  He contrasts Sarah & her son Isaac to Hagar.  Yet Sarah & Isaac were the literal ancestral predecessors of God’s Mt Sinai law, not Hagar & Ishmael!  Paul, being advanced in Judaism (Ga.1:14), would’ve known OT Genesis lineages.  Moses the lawgiver descended from Sarah, not Hagar!

David A. Brondos The Parting of the Gods, p.43 “Paul associates the Sinai covenant and the present Jerusalem with slavery and the sending away of Hagar. It is difficult to imagine other Jews in antiquity associating the covenant given at Sinai with a life of slavery.”  Ishmael wasn’t Jewish, nor would he be a slave.  Ishmael the ‘gentile’ would be as a “wild donkey” (Ge.16:11-12), roaming free.  Dr. Steve Moyise Paul and Scripture, p.45 “His [Paul’s] identification of those [Jews] insisting on circumcision with Ishmael must have been shocking.”  The Lord freed ancient Israel from slavery in Egypt; they were free at Mt Sinai and then in the Promised Land.  Ga.4:24 but Paul indicates the Sinai covenant begets/engenders (gennáo Strongs g1080, Greek), causes, bondage!  Paul’s take is noted in Meyer’s NT Commentary Ga.4:24. “This covenant…a state of bondage, namely through subjection to the Mosaic law.”  Paul’s (allegorized) view of the Sinai law is contrary to the OT.

Paul’s reversed allegory perhaps swayed pagan gentile converts in Galatia; many or most weren’t well-versed in the OT.  But today we have access to complete Bibles and the lineages therein.  We can verify whether or not New Testament (NT) writers, like Paul, were at variance with the (OT) scriptures.

Paul misquoted the OT in Ro.3:10. “As it is written, There is none righteous [díkayos g1342], not even one.”  But there were/are righteous men!  e.g. Noah, Abraham, Job, Daniel, John the Baptizer (Mk.6:20), Joseph of Arimathéa (Lk.23:50).  For Ro.3, Paul used the Greek OT (now our LXX).  Pulpit Commentary “Verse 10-18 [Ro.3] quoted from the LXX, though not all accurately.”  Cambridge Bible Ro.3:10 “The [quoted] words of Ro.3:10 are not found in the OT.”  Yet Ec.7:20 LXX “There is not a righteous [g1342] man in the earth who will do good and not sin.”  If Paul had written, Ro.3:10 ‘There is none sinless’ or ‘There is no righteous man who is sinless’, that would’ve echoed Ec.7:20.  But he didn’t.  Also in Ro.3:9-12, “There is none who does good [g5554]”.  Likely Paul had in mind Ps.14:1 LXX. “The fool has said in his heart, ‘There is no God’. There is none who does good [g5544].”  However, Ps.14 is about wicked infidel fools who don’t call on God and devour His people Israel (v.4).  Cambridge Bible “foreign oppressors” too.  If Paul was using Ps.14 as a basis to argue for ‘universal depravity’, he disregarded that it’s pointedly about anti-theists (atheists).  Whereas Ps.14:5 “God is with…the righteous [g1342]”!  Ps.14:1-5 doesn’t back Paul’s inclusion of every man, all mono-theist Jews too (and Greeks, Ro.3:9).  Nor does it back his assertion that there is “none righteous”.

Paul often misquoted or misapplied OT passages.  NT Professor Moyise op. cit., p.126 “Of 23 Isaiah quotations in Paul, only 4 can be said to be literal translations (no italics). About a dozen others have either additional words or significantly different words, while in 6 the meaning of the whole verse is different.”  Paul sometimes bent the scriptures.

Paul wrote in 2Co.13:1, “This is the 3^rd time I am coming to you. In the mouth of 2 or 3 witnesses shall every word be established.”  Here Paul quoted De.19:15 LXX.  But De.19:15 means 2 or 3 separate individuals as witnesses!  In Mt.18:15-17 and Jn.8:16-18, Jesus’ reference to 2 or 3 witnesses meant testimonies of 2 or 3 different persons.  Not the same one person witnessing on 2 or 3 occasions!  But Paul equated his own 3 visits as 3 witnesses.  Gill Exposition 2Co.13:1 “They were to look upon his [Paul’s] several comings as so many witnesses.”  Pulpit Commentary “St Paul is representing his separate visits as separate attestations….”  At times, Paul slanted OT meanings.

David Woodington Paul’s Use of the Law of Witnesses in 2 Corinthians 13:1 “His subsequent visit will act as the 3^rd and final witness against their wrongdoing…validating the testimony of a single witness on three occasions. Paul employs the well-known principle of De.19:15 in a new way [rabbinic]. ‘Every other incidence of this principle in action involves multiple witnesses, but Paul thinks that he alone is sufficient to accomplish this (Dr. Margaret Thrall The Second Epistle).’ After all, we see him taking similar liberties elsewhere in his writings. He is often imaginative in his reading of the Scriptures. This extends even to the laws of the Torah. 1Cor.9:8-12 If Paul can adapt a statute concerning muzzling oxen into a lesson about the material support of an apostle, surely it would be little problem for him to turn human witnesses into his own visits.”  Paul wasn’t always forthright.  (Jacob neither, Ge.27:19.)

Parts of Romans 7 are incoherent.  Ro.7:1-6 “We have been released from the law, so that we serve in the newness of the spirit, not in the oldness of the letter.”  Ellicott Commentary Ro.7:4 “The argument can hardly be said to have a logical cogency.”  NT Professor Heikki Raisanen Paul and the Law, p.46, 61 “Rom 7:1-6…a rather tortured allegory, the application of which is lost in internal contradictions….The allegory is simply confusing; it suits neither the opening statement (v.1) nor the conclusion (v.4).”  Then Ro.7:12-14 “The law is holy, and the commandment is holy, just and good. The law is spiritual.”  It seems also Paul contradicts himself regarding ‘spirit’ and ‘spiritual’, v.6 and v.14.  (Aside: The temple, with its Mosaic regulations, is still standing when Paul wrote Romans ca 57 AD.)

In the gospels, zero red-letter words of Jesus are rendered ‘grace’!  (In Lk.6:32-34, 17:9 the Greek term cháris g5485 is rendered “thank, credit, favor”.)   Many Bible historians think Paul’s gospel promoted a new ‘law vs grace’ dichotomy, as Jews/Israel vs gentiles.  Yet God rescuing His people from slavery in Egypt was an act of unmerited grace…in the OT (ref De.4:7-8).  The Lord didn’t rescue Israel from Egyptian bondage to then sadistically subject them to a (misperceived) ‘bondage’ of His holy law!

Moyise op. cit., p.61 “In the Old Testament the law was viewed as a gift from God. Ps.19:7-9 ‘The law of the Lord is perfect’…He [Paul] is quite happy to live like a Jew in order to reach Jews, and live like a Gentile in order to reach Gentiles (1Cor.9:20-22).”  Did Paul customarily do what he basically rebuked Peter for doing in Ga.2:11-14, both trying to be “all things to all men”?  see “Paul the Apostle (3)”.

Paul wrote in Ga.3:11, “The just shall live by faith”.  He was quoting Hab.2:4, “The just shall live by his faith”.  Paul goes on to say in Ga.3:12, “The law is not of faith”.  However Ps.119:86 “All Thy commandments [mitzvót h4687, Hebrew] are faithfulness.”  The Lord’s commandments are integral with true faith!  Pulpit Commentary Ps.119:86 “They are an expression of the character of God.”  Poole Commentary Ps.119:86 “They are in themselves most just and true, and require justice and faithfulness from men.”  Paul’s opinion that God’s law isn’t of faith contradicts the OT.  Also Paul wrote in Ga.2:21, “If righteousness [g1343] is by the law, then Christ died in vain”.  But Ps.119:172 LXX “All Your commandments are righteousness [g1343].”  Gill Exposition Ps.119:172 “Being just and equitable in the highest sense.”  Barnes Notes “I must praise Thee for them.”  Therefore if Paul was referring to God’s written law, then his concern that Christ ‘died in vain’ is incongruous.

{Note: I won’t juxtapose Ro.3:28–4:3 against Ja.2:21-24, whether a man is justified by faith or works.  It is thought Paul had in mind the DSS 4QMMT ‘érgon nómou’ sectarian works.  see Paul (1).}

Had the unconverted murderer Saul/Paul himself been a past ‘child of the devil’?  While at Páphos on Cyprus, Barnábas & Saul encountered Elýmas the sorcerer.  Ac.13:6-11 “Saul, who also is Paul, filled with the Holy Spirit, said…‘You child of the devil…the hand of the Lord is upon you and you shall be blind, not seeing the sun for a time.’ Immediately there fell on him a mist and a darkness; and he went about seeking some to lead him by the hand.”  Blindness had happened to Saul too (near Damascus)!

Saul’s conversion experience is in Acts 9.  v.8-9 “Saul got up from the ground; though his eyes were open, he could see nothing. And leading him by the hand, they brought him into Damascus. He was 3 days without sight, and neither ate nor drank.”  The murderer Saul and the sorcerer both were blinded.

2Co.12:7-9 Paul was “given” [?] a continual angel/agent of Satan to afflict him.  (cf. Jb.2:7, Lk.13:16.)  To humble him?  Paul begged the Lord 3 times that it would leave him, to no avail.  But in the gospels, Jesus rescued from evil spirits and healed all who came beseeching Him!  Jesus didn’t say ‘No’ to their requests!  In the NT, of all those who besought the Lord for healing or deliverance…the only person named who Jesus denied was Paul!  Yet Lk.11:9-12 “Ask and it shall be given you….If a son shall ask bread from any of you who are fathers, will he give him a stone? Or if the son asks for a fish will he give him a serpent?”  Paul asked thrice, but still the messenger of that “old serpent called the devil and Satan” (Re.12:9) remained with him! (cf. Ja.4:6 “God resists the proud, but gives grace to the humble.”)

There are some today who believe in Jesus, but think Paul was a false apostle!  Noting Le.21:16-21, an OT priest having certain physical defects/deformities or was blind wasn’t to enter the Lord’s sanctuary.

Ephesus (g2181) was located in the Roman province of Asia (g773), W Turkey today.  Ac.19:1-10 Paul spent 2 ¼ years at Ephesus (ca 54-56 AD).  Then Ac.20:16 “Paul decided to sail past Ephesus, so he wouldn’t have to spend [more] time in Asia.”  He returned to Jerusalem in 57 AD.  At the temple, Jews from Asia accused Paul.  Ac.21:27-31 “This is the man who teaches all men everywhere against our people, and the Law, and this temple. For they had seen with him in the city Tróphimus the Ephesian.”

Later, in the 60s AD Paul wrote to Timothy.  2Ti.1:15 “This you know, all those in Asia turned away from me.”  It seems that Paul had lost his following in Asia!  Perhaps elsewhere too?  2Ti.4:16 “At my first verbal defense, no man stood by me, but all forsook me.”  That’s unsettling.  We may surmise what factors led to Paul coming into such disfavor in Asia.  Jesus spoke to the apostle John in vision, Re.2:1-2 “To the angel of the church in Ephesus write: ‘I know your works…you have tested those who call themselves apostles and are not, and have found them false”.  Is that why believers in Ephesus/Asia turned away from Paul?  People today who view Paul as a false apostle tie-in the above verses.  Yet late in life Paul positively linked to Ephesus in 2Ti.4:12. “I have sent Tychicús to Ephesus.”

I like to believe that Paul’s sometime traveling companion Dr. Luke (Col.4:14) accurately recorded what he saw & heard (from Paul, et al.).  In the NT, no apostle personally advocates Paul’s gospel!

Raisanen op. cit., p.14 “For better or for worse, Paul has become a theological authority.”  But over the centuries, Paul has had many critics.  Following is a sampling among well-known writers:

Thomas Jefferson, writer of the Declaration of Independence, early-on was in the Church of England.  He was baptized & went to Episcopal services.  In 1803 he wrote to Benjamin Rush, “I am a Christian”.  In 1813 Jefferson wrote to John Adams, “The very words only of Jesus, the most sublime and benevolent code of morals which have ever been offered to man”!  He wrote to Adams of the Creator “God whom you and I both acknowledge and adore” (1823).  monticello.org/jeffersons-religious-beliefs “Jefferson was a devout Theist.”  But he opposed orthodox Christianity (and Calvinism).  Jefferson wrote to Ambassador William Short in 1820, “Paul was the first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus”!

Historian Will Durant Caesar and Christ (1944). “In essentials the synoptic gospels agree remarkably well, and form a consistent picture of Christ. Paul created a theology of which none but the vaguest warrants can be found in the words of Christ. Paul replaced conduct with creed as a test of virtue.”

Jewish philosopher Martin Buber Two Types of Faith (1951), publisher’s Summary. “He [Buber] offers a sincere and reverent view of Christ and of the unique and decisive character of His message to Jew and gentile.”  Buber wrote, “Not merely the Old Testament belief and the living faith of post-Biblical Judaism are opposed to Paul, but also the Jesus of the Sermon on the Mount [too reflects opposition].”

Danish theologian/philosopher Soren Kierkegaard The Journals (1849-1855). “When Jesus Christ lived, He was indeed the prototype. Imitate Christ, become a disciple. Not Christ, but Paul…threw Christianity away, turning it upside down.”

Leo Tolstoy My Religion, chap. 11 (1884). “The doctrine of Jesus is to bring the kingdom of God upon earth. Paul, who knew but imperfectly the ethical doctrine set forth in the Gospel of Matthew, preached a metaphysico-cabalistic [hidden/occult] theory foreign to the doctrine of Jesus.”

Lutheran Professor Brondos wrote of how some view Paul’s doctrine.  Op. cit., p.2 “Paul had regarded life under the Jewish law as ‘loss’ and ‘rubbish’ [Php.3:4-9]. Believers in Christ had been redeemed from their slavery and subjection to the law, which only brought death and condemnation. Any who rejected Paul’s gospel and insisted on clinging to the law were denying God’s grace and remained under His wrath & curse [Ro.4:15 & Ga.3:10]. How easily these negative portrayals fed into the conclusion that Jews should be eradicated, as the Nazi regime sought to do. Martin Luther [German theologian] had advocated violence toward the Jews of his day based on the same type of portrayal of Judaism.”

Paul wrote in 1Th.2:14-16, “The Jews…are not pleasing to God, and are hostile to all people. But God’s utmost wrath is come upon them.”  Noted evangelical scholar F.F. Bruce saw Paul’s passage as “an indiscriminate anti-Jewish polemic”.  (However, Paul’s tone re Jews sounds much different a few years later in Ro.9:1-3.)  Christian poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote, “How dearly Martin Luther loved St Paul. How dearly St Paul would have loved Martin Luther!”  Martin Luther On the Jews and Their Lies “Venomous beasts, disgusting scum, devils incarnate….We are at fault for not slaying them.”

Patrick Gray Paul as a Problem in History and Culture, p.123-4 “It is more common to hear him [Paul] described as a renegade Jew. ‘Jesus was a good guy, Paul was a bad goy’ expresses a view widely held. The Nazi horrors led many to find Christianity complicit in the murder of Jews. For many Christians as well as Jews, Paul’s comments about the law of Moses deserve the blame for centuries of anti-Semitism that came to fruition in Auschwitz & Buchenwald.”  Others tie back the Inquisitions too to Paul’s letters.

Brondos op. cit., p.41 “In Jewish thought, the [written] law didn’t kill people [2Co.3:6] or hold them under a curse. Nor did it restrict people as a disciplinarian kept a child under restraint [Ga.3:23-25], increase trespasses [Ro.5:20], or place those committed to living in conformity to it under God’s wrath. On the contrary, the law promised life to those who kept it [De.30:14-20]. Yet Paul repeatedly states this is precisely what the law did not and cannot do.”  Lutheran Pastor Raisanen op. cit., p.269 “Paul didn’t [?] realize that Scripture was not on his side.”  Zero NT verses show apostles preaching ‘Paul’!

Gray op.cit., p.203 “Exasperating is his [Paul’s] inconsistency between his words and his deeds. His chameleon-like flexibility in becoming ‘all things to all men’ (1Cor.9:22) which results in egregious instances of hypocrisy is not excused by his critics on the grounds that he thereby saves some of his listeners.”  Yet Gray’s bottom line, p.123 “Without Paul, history might have taken a turn for the worse”.  Yes, overall a world without Paul’s letters could conceivably be worse.

The old Greek version of the OT (now our LXX) was completed by 132 BC.  The scriptures were known in Paul’s homeland of Cilicía (Ac.22:3), SE of Galatia.  Possibly the epistles bearing Paul’s name did quote the OT accurately, but decades later a corrupt monopolistic church altered some words of his epistles?  At this point, that’s merely speculation, unproven.  However, centuries earlier Jeremiah wrote, “the lying pen of scribes has produced falsehood” (Je.8:8).

Dionýsius bishop of Corinth Letter to the Romans (ca 180 AD). “I wrote [my] letters when the brethren requested me to write. These letters the apostles of the devil have filled with tares, taking away some things and adding others, for whom a woe is in store. It is, then, not to be wondered at, if some have attempted to adulterate the Lord’s [NT] writings.”  Dionysius thought some NT verses had been altered.

Origen (185-253 AD) Commentary On Matthew, Book 15.14 “It is clear that many differences in the copies [NT manuscripts] have come about either from the lazy indifferences of certain scribes, or the misguided daring of some of the correction of the things written, who…added or subtracted those things according to their own opinions.”  Copyists had played loose with some original NT verses.

Judging from those statements by early church ‘fathers’, possibly Paul’s letters too contain alterations made by others?

In the NT, 13 epistles bear Paul’s name.  However, today NT scholars & critics attribute only 7 to him – Romans, 1Corinthians, 2Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1Thessalonians, Philemon.  They think Ephesians, Colossians, 2Thessalonians, 1Timothy, 2Timothy, Titus, Hebrews weren’t written by Paul.  If that’s the case, then some variances & discrepancies (vis-á-vis the OT) aren’t from Paul’s pen.  I still go by the assumption that 13 epistles were written by Paul, until they’re definitely proven otherwise.

The quandary remains regarding some of Paul’s views & teachings…in our Bible canon there’s no ‘2^nd or 3^rd witness’ validating them or his theology!  Which contradictions are we to believe, and which disbelieve?  The opinions of NT readers & Christians vary.  We may also ponder, ‘What separate 2^nd or 3^rd witnesses validated some of the tenets of Joseph Smith (Mormonism), Mary Baker Eddy, or Sun Myung Moon’?  Zero witnesses!  Or of dubious televangelists?  Paul’s writings aren’t infallible.  He acknowledged, not all early Christians were in the ‘church of Paul’, so to speak.  1Co.1:12 they were saying “I am of Paul’, and ‘I of Apollos’, and ‘I of Cephás”.  Yet a slanted ‘Paulinism’ is popular today.

Some evangelical Christians see several inconsistencies in Paul’s writings.  Gregory Robbins Paul On Trial “Paul was by his own admission all things to all men [1Co.9:20-22]. In his epistles, you can find a very large variety of doctrines, many of which contradict each other. Sinless perfection? It is there. Not yet perfect? It is also there. Free from the law? You will find it. You will also find that Paul both quoted & commanded verses from the law. Works not necessary? You will find it. Works ARE necessary? You will find that too. Eternal salvation? Yes, it’s there. You can lose your salvation? Yes, it’s also there. Paul was all over the map on his doctrine, and his actions.”  It can be perplexing for Bible readers.

Yet our faith is in God, not in Paul or in the vicissitudes of his writings!  Raisanen op. cit., p.268 & 228 “Paul gets involved in self-contradictions. In sum, I am not able to find any conception of the law which involves such inconsistencies or arbitrariness as does Paul’s.”  Paul the ‘chameleon’; see Paul (2).

Perhaps Paul was somewhat confused in his own mind, as he proceeded on his journey with the Lord?  Maybe the “angel” of Satan which tormented or harassed him (2Co.12:7) garbled his thinking to an extent?  It’s been conjectured that Paul possibly suffered from mood or bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, epilepsy, or even psychopathy.  1Ti.1:15 Paul, a past murderer, later said he’s the “foremost of sinners”.

We’re all imperfect, including Paul (Peter too).  I think the good Paul did and the good that has resulted from him outweighs the bad via his flaws & missteps.  e.g. Ga.5:22-23 Paul’s pen lists the figurative fruit of the Spirit!  Conceivably, he compromised or doctored actual meanings of OT passages so that his mission would sound more attractive to pagans.  The Bible is gradually being translated into all dialects.  Though Paul has caused skepticism and division too, the church at large has surely grown.

Many readers feel inspired by chapters of Paul’s writings.  I especially like Ro.8, Ro.12, Ro.16, 1Co.2, 1Co.12–13, 2Co.5, 2Co.10, Col.3–4, the books of Ephesians & Philippians!  I feel that the positive admonitions and instructions in Paul’s letters outweigh the discrepancies and contradictions which cause head-scratching among NT readers and Christian brethren.

 

Heavenly Host Authorities and Powers (2)

This topic is the continuation and conclusion to “Heavenly Host Authorities and Powers (1)”.  For additional related background about God’s created angels and other spirit beings, see the topics: “Spirits – Made by God in Light”, “Watchers and Gen. 6 ‘Sons Of God”, “Names & Titles of God in Scripture”, “Jesus Was the Old Testament God”, “Michael in the Bible”.

Little of the material covered in “Heavenly Host Authorities and Powers (1)” is repeated here.  Part 1 noted Bible verses which show that God is supreme among His host (tsabáw Strongs h6635, Hebrew) of celestial beings.  Transliterated Lord of “sabaóth” in New Testament Greek, Ro.9:29 & Ja.5:4.  In the Old Testament (OT), there are lesser spirit beings called “sons of God” (béne ha Élohim h1121 h430).

Some members of God’s celestial host were given a measure of authority over nations.  Wikipedia: Origins of Judaism – Iron Age Yahwism “The various national gods were more or less equal, reflecting the fact that the kingdoms themselves were more or less equal.”  De.32:8-9 Septúagint/LXX “When the Most High divided the nations, He set the bounds of the nations according to the number of the angels of God. His people Jacob became the portion of the Lord [Kúrios Strongs g2962, Greek], Israel.”  Book of Jubilees 15:32 “Over Israel He did not appoint any angel or spirit, for He alone is their ruler.”  Israel belonged to the Lord.  Ex.20:3 Israel shall have no other gods before/besides YHVH [h3068]!

Some of the “sons of God”, ‘junior elohím’ (h430) or ‘godlings’, weren’t loyal & obedient to God; they didn’t follow His guidelines!  Jb.4:18 “His angels He charged with folly.”  Jb.15:15 “He puts no trust in His holy ones; the heavens are not pure in His sight.”  Poole Commentary Jb.15:15 “i.e. angels.”

Ancient Israel desired to disobediently worship those gods/elohim of the pagans.  De.32:17 “Israel sacrificed to demons [LXX daimónia g1140], and not to God [Elóah h433], to gods [elohim] whom their fathers knew not.”  Wikipedia: Daímon “Ancient Greek; originally referred to a lesser deity or guiding spirit.”  1Co.10:20 “The things which the Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice to demons [daimonia], and not to God [Théos g2316].”  1Ki.11:33 Israel forsook its God YHVH; and worshiped Astóreth goddess of the Sidoníans, Chemósh god of the Moabites, Milcóm god of the Ammonites.  De.29:26 “They [Israel] went and served other elohim, and worshiped them; gods whom He [YHVH] had not given to them.”  Ps.106:37 LXX the Lord’s people even sacrificed their sons and daughters to daimonia/demons.

De.4:19 “When you [Israel] see the sun, moon or stars, all the host of heaven, don’t worship them which the Lord your God has apportioned to all nations under heaven.”  Pulpit Commentary “Egyptians worshiped the sun as Ra, the moon as Ísis, and the stars as symbols of deities.”  The heavenly bodies represented the heavenly host of spirit beings.  cf. Jg.5:20 (symbolically) “The stars in their courses fought against Siserá [Canaaníte captain].”  De.17:3 no Israelite was to serve or worship other gods/elohim, and not the sun or moon; none of the host of heaven.  No idolatry.

But ancient Israel spurned their God YHVH; they wanted to worship the gods of the heathens instead or too.  So…Ac.7:42 “God turned, and gave them up to worship the host [stratía g4756, Greek] of heaven.”

Following are excerpts from theologians about God’s heavenly host, “sons of God”, celestial “powers”, and God’s ‘council’:

G.B. Caird Principalities and Powers: p.2 “The inferior gods are to recognize the supremacy of Yahweh [YHVH].”  p.3 “These supernatural beings are conceived as forming a heavenly council around the throne of God.”  Ps.89:6-7 see Part 1.  p.4 “In the Old Testament the ‘host of heaven’ usually denotes the sun, moon, and stars; but sometimes it denotes the heavenly court of Yahweh.”  New Bible Dictionary “The two meanings ‘celestial bodies’ and ‘angelic beings’ are inextricably intertwined.”  Ps.96:5 LXX “All the gods of the nations are demons [daimonia].”  In classical Greek, a daimónion was a divine being, bad or good.  ‘To the Greeks it denoted any heavenly mediator between God and man.’

Caird op. cit.: p.12-13 Plato had spoken of daimonia as guardians of cities [Laws.4:713c, 5:738d]….The stars as ‘visible and created gods’, who derived their divinity from the one God, the Démiurge [Timáeus 40d].”  p.15 “According to Philo [On The Change Of Names 4], God performs some of His providential actions personally, and others through the agency of incorporeal powers.”  p.74 “The deities of the pagan state were responsible for the maintenance of law and had been identified with the astrological gods who represented the reign of natural law.”  p.23 “Pagan nations could be represented either by their angelic governors or by their earthly rulers. Any derivative authority which sets itself up as an absolute authority takes on a demonic [daimonion] character.”

Michael S. Heiser The Unseen Realm: p.325 “The New Testament is silent on the origin of demons [daimonia]. There is no passage that describes a primeval rebellion before Eden where angels fell from grace and became demons.”  p.171 “Yahweh chose to disinherit nations at Babel [Ge.11]. Lesser elohim He had placed over [nations].”  p.127 “(De.32:8-9) Yahweh placed the nations under the governance of junior elohim – sons of God of His divine council.”  p.322 “Lesser elohim had governed corruptly and not maintained loyalty to the Most High. Instead, they embraced the worship that should have gone only to Yahweh (De.17:3, 29:26) [Israel especially].”  p.29 “What the ancient idol worshipers believed was that the objects they made were inhabited by their gods. This is why they performed ceremonies to ‘open the mouth’ of the statue.”

Heiser op. cit.: p.324 “The Hebrew text of Ps.8:5 has humanity being ‘a little lower than elohim.”  p.36 “Jesus is indeed identified with Yahweh and is therefore with Yahweh, unique [monogenés g3439, Jn.1:1, 14, 18] among the elohim that serve God.”

Brian Godawa When Giants Were Upon the Earth: p.45 “Yahweh is incomparably THE Elohim of elohim (Deut.10:17).”  Ps.95:3 “YHVH is a great El [h410 God], above all elohim.” (Though other gods exist; cf. De.32:39 & Is.47:5-7 with Zep.2:13-15 Assyria.)  Ps.96:5 LXX “The gods of the nations are daimonia, but the Lord made the heavens.”  p.46 “The physical objects [idols] were without deity, they could not ‘see or hear or walk’; but the gods behind those objects were real beings with evil intent.”

Godawa op. cit.: p.48 “As punishment for man’s repeated spurning of His authority in primordial times (Gen.3–11), God deprived mankind at large of true knowledge of Himself.”  (see the topic “Kingdom of God”.)  Traditionally, 70 ‘nations’ are indicated (Ge.10) prior to Babel.  The (supposed) Book of Jasher 9:32, “God said to the 70 angels who stood foremost before Him, ‘Let us descend and confuse their tongues”.  p.275 “God divided the 70 nations…the sons of God became the ‘princes’ [cf. Da.10:13, 20] or ‘gods’ of those pagan nations, rulers of those geographical territories.”  p.49 “God then allots the people [Israelites] for Himself, through Abraham. But God’s people fall away from Him and worship these other gods and are judged for their apostasy.”

Godawa op.cit.: p.53 “In the Bible, the concept of ‘god’ (elohim) was about a plane of existence, not necessarily a ‘being’ of existence. There were many gods [1Co.8:5] who existed on that supernatural plane, yet only one God of gods.”  Henothéism.  p.54 “Physical idols (images) are ‘nothing’ and ‘have no real existence’ in that they are the representatives of the deities and not the deities themselves. But the deities behind those idols are real demonic beings, the gods of the nations who are not THE God. Monólatry [henotheism? see Part 1] maintains Yahweh as being of a different substance, essence, or species than the other gods.”  p.56 “A heavenly host of thousands of sons of God called gods, watchers, and holy ones who surround God’s throne as an assembly, who counsel with God and worship Him, and some of whom were given rule over human nations in the past, but have lost that privilege.”  p.53 “Jesus is the species-unique [monogenes] Son of God, the ‘visible Yahweh’ co-regent over the divine council. (Da.7:13-14).”

Ac.17:26 “From one man, God made every nation to live on all the earth; He determined their appointed times, and the boundaries of their habitation.”  Godawa op.cit.: p.197 “At Babel, God dispersed the peoples, placing them under the sons of God as their deities. God ‘gave them over’ to their wickedness. With the arrival of Messiah, the gospel liberates those gentile nations from their bondage to be united as one in Christ through faith.”  p.276 “After the death, resurrection, and ascension of Christ, these spiritual powers have been overthrown, at least legally losing their hegemony (Eph.1:20-23). The fallen angelic powers are still around, but have been defanged with the inauguration of the Messianic kingdom of God.”  p.282-3 “Jesus said His ministry of casting out demons [spirit non-principalities?] was a binding of the satan [ha satán h7854]. With the advent of Christ, the satan/Accuser has been exiled from the divine council of Yahweh [Jn.12:31].”

Brian Godawa When Watchers Ruled The Nations: p.19 “Yahweh gave the host of heaven to all the peoples as their gods because they were already idolators.”  p.20 “We have no historical or biblical evidence of a period of righteous spiritual rulers or worship of Yahweh [by gentile nations] after Babel.”  p.27 “Stars were equated with gods and gods were equated with stars. This explains the development of astrology as the stars determining our destiny; because the ancient mind thought of the stars as gods, and the gods controlled their lives….[gods] represented in the sun, moon and stars that were worshiped by pagans (Da.8:10-11, Ps.148:2-3).”  also ref Part 1.

Walter Wink Naming the Powers “Much tradition identified Satan as the angel of Rome. Since Rome had conquered the entire Mediterranean region and much else besides, its angel-prince had become lord of all other angel-princes of the vanquished nations.”  The ‘Watcher of Rome’, the national “beast” of Re.13:1-8.  Other theologians view the satan in the OT as the label for an adversary or prosecutor.

Caird op. cit.: p.32 “The Satan. He is one of the sons of Elohim [Job 1:6] and has the right of access to the heavenly court. He acts as public prosecutor (Ps.109:6); his duty is to indict sinners before the bar of divine justice.”  (Da.7:9-10 a view of God’s heavenly court.)  p.16 “It is obvious that the principalities, authorities, and powers which are being reduced to impotence by the regnal Christ are spiritual beings [1Co.15:24].”  p.17 “Paul discerned the existence of angelic rulers who shared with their human agents the responsibility for the crucifixion [1Co.2:6-8].”  p.29 “Men and angels alike have been reconciled to God through the Cross [Col.1:16-20].”  Caird includes even disobedient angels.  p.30 “The state itself may be brought progressively more and more within the Christian dispensation.”  p.46 “In Col [1:20] Paul emphatically asserts that the powers are created beings… destined through Christ to be reconciled to God.”  p.56 “The sphere of Yahweh’s sovereignty was steadily extended until it became commensurate with the universe.”  p.83 “The powers could be reconciled to God only when they had been deprived of their evil potentiality and made subject to Christ.”  p.91 “Thus in putting Christ to death the powers were not asserting their control over Him, they were losing the only chance of control they ever had.”  p.101 “The powers of evil have been defeated by the obedience of Christ.”  p.69 “The world empires of the past are to give place to the saints of the Most High [Da.7:27].”

He.2:5 “He [God] did not subject to angels the world [inhabited earth] to come.”  Cambridge Bible He.2:5 “Things in their pre-Christian condition had been subjected to angels.”  Now there’s no legal angelic dominion.  Col.2:18 ESV “Let no one disqualify you, insisting on asceticism and the worship of angels.”  Angels aren’t to be worshiped (ref Re.19:10, 22:8-9, Lk.4:6-8).  Rather….

Ps.97:7 “Worship [shakáw h7812] Him [YHVH], all you gods [elohim h430, LXX angels].”  2Ki.5:14-18 Syrians worshiped (h7812) the god Rimmón (Remphán Ac.7:43); the healed Syrian Naamán took back to Syria some Israel soil to make an altar on which he’d sacrifice to YHVH.  Zep.2:11 YHVH the Lord of hosts will famish all the elohim of the earth, and eventually all people will worship (h7812) Him.  Barnes Notes Zep.2:11 “One universal worship shall ascend to God from all everywhere.”  Jesus asserted that His heavenly Father is the “only true God”, Jn.17:3.

Paul wrote that Christians become adopted sons (and daughters, 2Co.6:18) of God!  Ro.8:15 “You have received the Spirit of divine adoption as sons, by whom we cry out, ‘Abbáh, Father.”  also see Ro.8:23, Ep.1:5.  Humanity, made in God’s image & likeness, will share in the God Family!  Heiser op. cit., p.353 “Humanity will become divine [2Pe.1:4?] and displace the lesser elohim over the nations under the authority of the unique divine Son.”  According to Paul, we saints will even judge angels (1Co.6:3).

Again, for more about God’s spirit creation, see Part 1 and the topics: “Spirits – Made by God in Light”, “Watchers and Gen. 6 ‘Sons Of God”, “Names & Titles of God in Scripture”, “Michael in the Bible”.

 

Heavenly Host Authorities and Powers (1)

This topic is about God’s heavenly host.  It expands on the material and Bible verses presented in the topics “Spirits – Made by God in Light”, “Watchers and Gen. 6 ‘Sons Of God”, “Names & Titles of God in Scripture”, “Jesus Was The Old Testament God”, “Michael in the Bible”.  Reference those topics for more background.

To begin, from the topic “Spirits – Made By God in Light”: After Light was brought forth on the 1^st day (Ge.1:3), God made spirit beings lesser than Himself.  Ps.104:2-4 Septúagint/LXX “Who makes His angels spirits”.  The angelic order is composed of spirit beings.  God’s heavenly host (tsabáw Strongs h6635, Hebrew) includes angels.  Ne.9:6 “You are the Lord [YHVH h3068], who has made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host. The host of heaven worships You.”  Cambridge Bible Ne.9:6 “Most probably means the created spirits.”  Benson Commentary “All the inhabitants of heaven.”  Gill Exposition “Angels were made by him, Heb.1:7; and, as the Jewish writers say, on the 2^nd day of the creation, though some say on the 5^th.”  Col.1:16 “By Him [Christ the Son] all things were created, both in the heavens and on earth, visible and invisible.”  The Lord Christ shared in the Creation.  It includes the heavenly host of beings, normally not visible to human eyes.  JFB Commentary Col.1:16 “Invisible – the world of spirits.”  Barnes Notes “The angels we cannot see. Inhabitants of distant worlds.”  Benson Commentary “The different orders of angels, both those that stood and those that afterward fell.”

Jn.1:14 Jesus was the primordial “Word” (lógos g3056, Greek) of God.  Jn.1:1-3 “The Word was God. All things came into being through Him [Christ the Word].”  “All things” may include lesser spirit beings.  Expositor’s Greek Testament Jn.1:3 “In 1Cor.8:6 Paul distinguishes between the Father as the primal source of all things and the Son as the actual Creator.”  Christ as Executive Creator.  He.12:9 God is the “Father of spirits”.  Meyer’s New Testament Commentary “God, who is Father in regard to the higher spiritual domain of life.”  Barnes Notes He.12:9 “God is Himself a Spirit [Jn.4:24]. Angels and human souls [or spirits] may be represented as especially His offspring.”  JFB Commentary “God is…the Creator of spirits like Himself, in contrast to men who are flesh.”  Pulpit Commentary “It isn’t human spirits only that are here in view. God is the Father of all ‘the spirits.”

In the Old Testament (OT), some lesser spirit beings are referred to as “sons of God”, béne ha Élohim (h1121 h430).  Jb.38:7 at Creation “the morning stars sang together, and the sons of God [bene Elohim] shouted for joy.”  v.7 LXX (Greek) “When the stars were made, all My angels praised Me with a loud voice.”  Da.3:25 “Like a son of Elaáh [bar Elahin h1247 h426, Aramaic].”  Ps.89:6-7 “Who in heaven can be compared to YHVH? Who among the sons of El [bene Elim h1121 h410] can be likened to YHVH? El is greatly to be feared in the council [sode h5475] of the holy ones, to be had in reverence of all those around Him.”  Poole Commentary Ps.89:7 “The whole society of angels.”  Ps.97:9 “You, YHVH are exalted far above all gods [elohim].”  Ex.15:11 LXX “Who is like You among the gods [théos g2316], O Lord [Kúrios g2962].”  Ps.29:1 “O you sons of El [bene Elim], give unto YHVH glory and strength.”  Barnes Notes Ps.29:1 “The psalmist calls upon the angels.”  Ps.96:9 LXX “Worship the Lord [Kurios] in His holy court.”  YHVH the Lord is superior to others.

Da.4:35 the Most High does according to His will in the army of heaven.  JFB Commentary Da.4:17 “A solemn council of the heavenly ones is supposed (cf. Job 1:6, 2:1), over which God presides supreme.”  Jb.1:6, 2:1 “There was a day when the sons of God [bene ha elohim] came to appear before YHVH.”

1Ki.22:19-23 LXX NETS “I saw the Lord God of Israel sitting on His throne, and all the host (stratía g4756) of heaven stood near on His right and on His left.”  Here one of the Lord’s host offered to be a lying spirit to deceive king Aháb!  In the New Testament (NT), Lk.2:13 “Suddenly a vast heavenly host [stratia] appeared, praising God”.  Is.6:1-3 “Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord [YHVH] of hosts.”

Ps.82:1-2 “Elohim stands in the assembly of El; He judges among the elohim. How long will you judge unjustly?”  v.6 “I have said, ‘You are elohim’; all of you are sons of the Most High [bene Elyón h1121 h5945].”  However, v.7 “But you shall die like men” may indicate physical judges (not celestial)?  Ps.8:5 Humans are created a little lower than the heavenly beings (elohim h430; LXX “angels”, He.2:7).  ref the topic “Watchers and Gen. 6 ‘Sons of God” for Bible commentaries regarding God’s council.

Yet some celestial beings weren’t loyal or obedient to God; they didn’t follow His guidelines!  Jb.4:18 “His angels (maláwk h4397) He charged with folly.”  Barnes Notes “The idea is that of foolishness.”  Jb.15:15 “He puts no trust in His holy ones; the heavens are not pure in His sight.”  Poole Commentary “i.e., angels.”  Jb.25:5 “The stars are not pure in His sight.”  JFB Commentary “Angels, of which stars are emblems.”

In the NT, some beings in God’s celestial host are called “authorities”, “powers”, “principalities”.  Our Bible translations use English words to describe or identify (ruling) members/groups of God’s spirit creation, the heavenly host.  But some translations use the same English word to represent various terms of the Greek text source manuscripts.  That unspecific practice may confuse.  For consistency, I’ll use the following English words for the associated Greek NT & OT LXX terms:

Authority exousía g1849: Col.1:13 “The Father has rescued us from the authority of darkness.”

Authority g1849 and Powers dúnamis g1411: 1Pe.3:22 “Angels and authorities and powers having been subjected to Him [Christ].”  Cambridge Bible “Including the whole hierarchy of heaven.”  Pulpit Commentary “The evil angels also…against their will.”  Re.13:2 “The dragon gave the beast [a human rule] his power and authority.”  (cf. Lk.4:36, 9:1 regarding the power of Jesus given to His disciples.)

Principality arché g746 and Powers g1411: Ro.8:38 “Neither death, nor life, nor angels, principalities or powers…shall separate us from the love of God.”

Principalities g746 and Authorities g1849: Ep.3:10 “That there be made known to the principalities and authorities in the heavenly places the wisdom of God.”  Ep.6:12 “We wrestle not against flesh and blood, but with principalities and authorities, against spiritual authority in heavenly places.”  Col.1:16 “In Him [Christ the Son] were all things created, those visible and invisible; whether thrones, lordships, principalities or authorities; all things by Him and for Him.”  Col.2:10 “You are made full in Him [Christ], who is the head of all principality and authority.”  Col.2:15 “Having stripped the principalities and authorities, He made a show of them openly, having triumphed over them.”  (cf. Lk.12:11 & 20:20 & Tit.3:1, which relate to human rule.)

Principalities g746 and Authority g1849 and Powers g1411: Ep.1:20-21 “He [Father God] set Christ at His own right hand in the heavens, far above every principality, authority and power.”  Gill Exposition “Far above…good angels and bad angels, and civil magistrates.”  1Co.15:24 “Then comes the end…when He has put down all principality and authority and power.”  JFB Commentary “Whether openly opposed powers, as Satan [a seraph dragon? cf. Is.6:2] and his angels, or kings & angelic principalities.”

Ruler/Prince árchon g758: Da.12:1 LXX Michael the archangel is the great (mégas g3173) ruler/prince.  (cf. Da.10:13, 20-21, Jude 9.)  Jn.12:31 Jesus said, “Now will the prince of this world [kósmos g2889] be cast out”.  Ellicott Commentary “Prince of this world’ was the regular rabbinic title for Satan, as ruler of the gentiles. Jews as well as gentiles have been subjects of the prince of this world (Jn.8:44).”  Re.12:9 “The great dragon was thrown down, the serpent of old who is called the devil and satan.”  Robert Henderson Operating in the Courts of Heaven, p.173 “Fallen seraphim are now principalities.”

Ruler g758 and Authority g1849: Ep.2:2 “In time past you lived according to the eon [aión g165] of this world [kosmos], according to the ruler of the authority of the air, the spirit that now works in the sons of disobedience.”

Thrones thrónos g2362: Col.1:16 again.  Re.11:16 “The 24 elders [who wear crowns, Re.4:10], sitting on their thrones before God, fell on their faces and worshiped God.”  also cf. Re.20:4, Mt.19:28.

Most of the occurrences of the above NT terms relating to the heavenly host come from Paul’s writings.

What of those celestial beings/“sons of God” and their human rulers who weren’t loyal or obedient to God?  Is.24:21 “In that day the Lord will punish the host of high ones on high, and the kings of the earth on earth.”  Ellicott Commentary “The ‘principalities and powers in heavenly places.”  Je.46:25 “YHVH of hosts, the God of Israel says, ‘I will punish Amon the god of Thebes [capitol of S. Egypt], Egypt, its gods [elohim] and its kings.”  cf. 1Co.6:3 “Don’t you know that we will judge angels?”

Da.10:13 LXX NETS “The ruler [archon g758] of the kingdom of Persia withstood me 21 days. Michael, one of the chief rulers [g758], came to help me; and I left Him there with the ruler of the Persians.”  G.B. Caird Principalities and Powers, p.6 “These princes are not to be identified with Alexander the Great and Darius 3. They are the angelic guardians of the two nations (Da.10:13, 20, Da.12:1).”  Ibid., p.11 “The Septuagint. It is here we find the terms powers (dunamis g1411), authorities (exousia g1849), principalities (arche g746)…applied for the first time to angelic beings (Ps.148:2, 103:21).”

Members of God’s heavenly host had a measure of authority over their nations.  De.32:8-9 LXX “When the Most High divided the nations, He set the bounds of the nations according to the number of the angels of God. His people Jacob became the portion of the Lord, Israel.”  Wisdom of Sírach 17:17 “In the division of the nations, the Lord set a [celestial] ruler over every people, but Israel is the Lord’s.”  Book of Jubilees 15:32 “Over Israel He did not appoint any angel or spirit, for He alone is their ruler.”

Wikipedia: Origins of Judaism – Iron Age Yahwism “The various national gods were more or less equal, reflecting the fact that kingdoms themselves were more or less equal, and within each kingdom a divine couple, made up of the national god and his consort – Yahweh [YHVH] and the goddess Asheráh in Israel and Judah – headed a pantheon of lesser gods.”  The “sons of God” [bene ha Elohim] were lesser.

Ex.20:3 Israel shall have no other elohim before/besides YHVH!  Claude Mariottini Other Gods Mentioned in the Old Testament “The 2^nd commandment declares that in Israel no other god should be worshiped in addition to YHVH…the words of the commandment do not deny the existence of other gods…Monothéism, that there was no other god besides YHVH, came into existence late in Israel.”

Wikipedia: Monotheism “The belief that there is only one deity, an all-supreme being that is universally referred to as God.”  Wikipedia: Polythéism “The belief in multiple deities, usually a pantheon of gods and goddesses.”  Wikipedia: Henothéism “The worship of a single supreme God that does not deny the existence or possible existence of other deities.”  Wikipedia: Monólatry “The belief in the existence of many gods, but with the consistent worship of only one [selected] deity.”  Monolatry and henotheism are similar, but henotheists worship only the God they view as the greatest.

Paul wrote in 1Co.8:5-6, “There be many gods and many lords. But for us there is one God, the Father…and one Lord, Jesus Christ.”  Jesus spoke of His heavenly Father in Jn.17:3. “This is life eternal, that they may know You, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom You have sent.”

This topic is continued and concluded in “Heavenly Host Authorities and Powers (2)”.  Part 2 includes additional views of theologians and commentaries about God’s host.

Aramaic in the Bible (1) – Old Testament

Our Bible books were written in (at least) three ancient languages; Hebrew, Aramáic, koine Greek.  This two-part topic is about Aramaic.  Part 1 discusses Aramaic in Old Testament (OT) times, BC. 

Noah and his family survived the Flood (Ge.7:13, 8:15-16).  Ge.9:18 “The sons of Noah who came out of the ark were Shem, Ham and Jápheth; and Ham was the father of Canáan.”  Ge.10:22, “The sons of Shem were Elám, Asshúr, Arphaxad, Lud and Arám.”  Aram and Canaan were grandsons of Noah.

Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 1:6:4 “Asshur lived at the city of Nineveh, and named his subjects Assyrians. Arphaxad named…the Chaldéans. Aram…called Syrians.” 

Semític languages are named from Shem.  The Aramaic language is named from Shem’s son Aram.  Cambridge Bible “The people denoted by Aram were destined to exercise great influence. The Araméan language gradually prevailed over the other Semitic dialects, even Hebrew.”

Ge.10:24 Septúagint/LXX “Arphaxad begot Kaínan [not Canaan], Kainan begot Shélah; Shelah begot Éber.”  The Hebrew people were named after Eber.  Josephus ibid “Eber, from whom they originally called the Jews, Hebrews.”  Eber was the great-grandson (or grandson) of Aram’s brother Arphaxad.

Much later, a language in the “Land of Canáan” Holy Land would be called Hebrew.  Tel Aviv’s Bar-Ilan Univ: Daf Parashat Hashavua (No.112) “It’s clear from extant epigraphic material that Hebrew is a Canaaníte language.”  Aramaic and Canaanite are classed as NW Semitic languages.  Hebrew and Phoenícian are sub-classed as NW Semitic Canaanite languages.  All four are primary-classed as Áfro-Asiátic languages.  Aramaic would become widely used geographically in the Near East.

Wikipedia: Aramaic “Ancient Aram, now called Syria, is considered the linguistic epicenter of Aramaic, the [later] language of the Arameans who settled the area during the Bronze Age. Aramaic is a Semitic language. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and the fringes of southern Mesopotamia [Ac.2:9, 7:2] and Anatólia [Turkey]. Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as the língua fránca [common tongue] of the empire. Its use spread throughout Mesopotamia, the Levánt and parts of Asia Minor. At its height, Aramaic, having gradually replaced earlier Semitic languages, was spoken in several variants all over what is today Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, E. Arabia, Bahrain, Sinai, parts of SE and south central Turkey, and parts of NW Iran.”  Aramaic became the language of Mesopotamia.

Wikipedia: History of Mesopotamia “Mesopotamia literally means ‘between the rivers’ in ancient Greek. The oldest known occurrence of the name Mesopotamia dates to the 4^th century BC, when it was used to designate the land east of the Euphrates in north Syria. Later it was more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the Tigris, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of Iraq and SE Turkey. The neighboring steppes to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the Zágros Mountains are also often included under the wider term Mesopotamia. A further distinction is usually made between Upper or N. Mesopotamia and Lower or S. Mesopotamia. Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the Jazíra, is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad. Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf.”

Prior to Aramaic, the main language of the ancient Near East was Akkádian, an East Semitic Afro-Asiatic language, now extinct.  Holman Bible Dictionary: Akkadian “Akkadian was the international language of diplomacy & commerce in the Near East before 1000 BC.”  Wikipedia: Akkadian Language “Its gradual replacement by Akkadian-influenced Old Aramaic among Mesopotamians.”  The ancient Old Aramaic period was c 1000–700 BC.  (Historians differ some in their period designations/dates.)

The OT term for “Aramaic language”, Aramíth Strongs h762 Hebrew (rendered “Syrian language” in the LXX), occurs 4 times: 2Ki.18:26, Is.36:11, Da.2:4, Ezr.4:7.  The term for a Syrian/Aramean person is Arammíy h761, 11 occurrences.  Aram h758 is both a man’s name and the Syrian region, occurring over 100 times.  Mesopotamia/Arám Naharáyim h763 (Aram-of-the-two-rivers, rendered Mesopotamia in the LXX), occurs 6 times: Ge.24:10, De.23:4, Jdg.3:8, 10, 1Ch.19:6, Ps.60:1.

Ge.12:5 Abrám (born c 2100 BC) migrated to the land of Canaan from Harrán (Akkadian “Harránu”), which was in the region of Aram.  Harran is in far south Turkey, 10 miles from the north Syrian border.

Abraham told his servant in Ge.24:2-4, “Don’t take a wife for my son from the Canaanites, among whom I live; but go to my country to my relatives and take a wife for Isaac”.  v.10 “He went to Aram-of-the-two-rivers, the city of Nahór.”  The city of Abraham’s brother Nahor was in N. Mesopotamian Syria, 400 miles distant.  The servant brought back Rebekah for Isaac.  Ge.25:20 “Isaac was 40 years old when he took Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuél the Aramean of Paddán-Arám, the sister of Labán the Aramean [Arammiy h761].”  Bethuel, the son of Nahor, was Abraham’s nephew (Ge.22:20-23).  Then Ge.28:5 “Isaac sent Jacob to Paddan-Aram,to Laban, son of Bethuel the Aramean.”  Jacob later brought back his wives, daughters of Laban on the Syrian “plain of Aram”…to the land of Canaan.

Of the Israelites’ ancestor, De.26:5 “My father was a wandering Aramean”.  Referring to the semi-nomad Abraham, or Jacob.  Abraham and grandson Jacob (born c 1950 BC) had spent several years in Aram/Syria.  Ge.14:13 Abram the “Hebrew” (Ibríy h5680) descended from Eber.  The term “Hebrew”, Ibriy h5680, occurs 34 times in the OT.  But that OT term always meant a people, not a language!

Circa 1865 BC, Laban and Jacob made a “heap of witness” at Mizpáh of Gilead, E. of the Jordan River (Jephtháh later lived there, Jg.11:34).  Ge.31:44-47 “They took stones and made a heap, and ate there. Laban called it Jegár–sahaduthá, but Jacob called it Galéed.”  Laban the Aramean called the memorial by a pre-Aramaic word, but Jacob called it by a pre-Hebrew word.  Jacob had learned both developing dialects growing up in Canaan, pre-Hebrew and his mother Rebekah’s pre-Aramaic.

Later, God’s nation of ancient Israel knew the developing Old Hebrew dialect (and Phoenician) in the Land of Canaan.  In 1954 AD, Solomon Birnbaum coined the term “Paleo-Hebrew alphabet” for the Old Hebrew.  The Old Hebrew script would be used from c 1000–500 BC to record Biblical texts.

There’s no evidence that Old/Paleo Hebrew was spoken in Mesopotamia.  Cambridge Bible Ge.11:1 “That Hebrew was the primitive language….has been disproved by the scientific comparative study of languages, and of Hebrew and the Semitic languages in particular.”  The ‘Old Hebrew’ alphabet script became a Canaanite language of (south) Canaan.  Is.19:18 “language of Canaan”, Israel’s language. 

Historians say the Phoenician language was spoken in north Canaan.  Phoenícia was a 150-mile coastal region.  (cf. Mk.7:26 “the woman was a Syrian-Phoenician”.)  Phoenicia included the cities of Tyre, Byblos, Sidón .  Ge.10:15 Sidon was the firstborn son of Canaan.  Old Hebrew and Phoenician were very similar; both contained the same 22 (consonantal) letters.  Aramaic too has 22.  Wikipedia: Paleo-Hebrew Alphabet “There is no difference between Paleo-Hebrew vs Phoenician letter shapes.”

Wikipedia: Old Aramaic “Emerging as the language of the city-states of the Arameans in the Levant in the early Iron Age [c 1000 BC]. From the 10^th century BC, the alphabet seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet. From 700 BC, different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the Levant and Egypt. The Akkadian-influenced Aramaic of Assyria, and then Babylon, started to come to the fore.”  Circa 800 BC, Aramaic was becoming the trade language of the Near East.  It generally was spoken by Syrians, Assyrians, Chaldeans, etc., E. of the Euphrates.  (cf. “Patriarchs’ Bronze Age Languages”.)

encyclopedia.com aramaic-language “Aramaic is the general name for various dialects often difficult to classify.” 

Canaanite is the general name/class for the Hebrew, Phoenician, Moabite, Edomite, Ammonite dialects; these developed gradually and were ‘mutually intelligible’. 

Presently, no Old Aramaic or Old Hebrew inscriptions have been discovered that predate 1000 BC; all are more recent!  No evidence has been found yet as proof either script existed prior to 1000 BC.

Ancient Jews called their language Judahite (Jehudíth h3066), not “Hebrew” (Ibriy h5680).  Jehudith occurs 6 times in the OT: 2Ki.18:26-28, Is.36:11-13, 2Ch.32:18, Ne.13:24.  2Ki.18:26-28 Jewish officials in Jerusalem wanted the threatening Assyrian commander Rabshakéh to speak to them in Aramaic (Aramith h762), not Judahite/Judean, so as not to frighten people on the wall.  In King Hezekiah’s day, 700 BC, common Jews in Judah didn’t speak Aramaic.  However, the Jewish officials understood Aramaic, the language of diplomacy in the Near East from c 800 BC (after Akkadian).

Nowhere in the OT is the language of Israelites/Jews called the ‘Hebrew language’!  James F. Driscoll Hebrew Language and Literature “The name Hebrew [Hebraistí g1447, Greek] as applied to the language is quite recent in Biblical usage, occurring for the first time in the Greek Prologue of Ecclesiásticus [Wisdom of Sirách], about 130 BC.”  Not occurring until that book in the Apócrypha.

In 721 BC, the northern kingdom of Israel was deported to Assyria.  2Ki.17:23-24 “Israel was exiled from their land to Assyria.”  Aramaic-speaking foreigners from Babylon etc. were brought into north Israel.  They’d assimilate as the “Samaritans”.  (see the topic “Israelite Deportations By Assyria”.)

In 597 BC, the southern kingdom of Judah was taken captive to Babylon, the next empire.  Je.10:11 is in Aramaic…Jeremiah was telling his Jewish people what to say to their Aramaic-speaking captors. 

Aramaic was the lingua franca of both the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) empires.  Israelites and Jews learned to speak Aramaic in their places of captivity beyond the Euphrates.  The Aramaic language was also called Cháldee (a misnomer?).  Easton’s Bible Dictionary “Chaldee is the Aramaic dialect, as it is sometimes called, as distinguished from the Hebrew dialect.”  Aramaic was also the official language of the Persian/Achaeménid Empire (559–333 BC), which followed.  The period of Old Aramaic (c 1000–700 BC) evolved into the period of Imperial/Official Aramaic (c 700–300 BC).

Wikipedia: Biblical Aramaic “King Darius the Great declared Imperial Aramaic to be the official language of the western half of his empire in 500 BC, and it forms the basis of Biblical Aramaic.”   

God inspired some scriptures of the OT from this time to be written in Aramaic.  The following chapters were written in Aramaic: Da.2:4b-7:28, Ezr.4:8-6:18, 7:12-26.

Of the total verses comprising Daniel & Ezra, 56% are written in Hebrew, 44% in Aramaic.  Jews then knew Aramaic.  Da.2:4 “The Chaldeans spoke to King Nebuchadnézzar in Aramaic [Aramith h762].”  Ezr.4:7 “The text of the letter was written in Aramaic [Aramith].”  To Artaxérxes, king of Persia.

{Sidelight: The Divine Name or Tetragrámmaton YHVH (h3068) occurs 6,500 times in the OT.  But the Name never occurs in any of the OT Aramaic chapters.  It seems that Daniel and Ezra weren’t ‘sacred name’ advocates who thought that God’s (Old Hebrew) Name must be commonly used!}

The hand from God even wrote in Aramaic the “handwriting on the wall” (539 BC)!  Da.5:24-28 “This is the written inscription: ‘MÉNE, MÉNE, TÉKEL, UPHÁRSIN.”  The words are monetary weights.  The wise men of Babylon spoke Aramaic, but Daniel could decipher the writing.  Wikipedia: Belshazzar’s Feast “The Chaldean wise men are unable to…interpret it. As Aramaic was written with consonants alone, they may have lacked any context in which to make sense of them.” 

Jews began returning to the Land of Canaan from captivity in 538 BC.  They returned with Zerubabbél, Ezra, Nehemiah.  These returnees brought the Aramaic language with them to the Land of Canaan. 

By the time of Nehemiah (450 BC), many Israelites and Jews no longer knew Judahite.  Ne.13:24  “As for their children…none of them was able to speak in the language of Judah [Jehudith h3066].”

The Holman Christian Standard Bible indicates they “could not speak Hebrew”.  Benson Commentary Ne.13:24 “The language which the Jews then spoke was Chaldee; this language they learned in their captivity, and after their return never assumed their ancient Hebrew tongue.”  Commoners didn’t resume the lip of Canaan or Judahite in Judea.  Pulpit Commentary Ne.13:24 “All the children [450 BC] spoke a jargon half Ashdódite and half Aramaic.”  (Áshdod was on the old Philistine coast.)

Ne.8:1-8 Ezra the priest-scribe read publically the Hebrew scriptures in Jerusalem on Rosh Hashánah.  v.8 “They read from the book of the law of God, translating so the people could understand.”  The returnees no longer could read the Judahite scriptures.  Pulpit Commentary Ne.8:8 “They translated the Hebrew words into the popular Aramaic or Chaldee.”  Ellicott Commentary “They naturally translated into the vernacular Aramaic dialect.”  Aramaic was the trade language of the then Persian Empire.

Some Bible scholars think that Ezra translated (or redacted) OT books into Aramaic/Chaldee.  Talmud: Sanhedrin 21b “In the times of Ezra, the Torah was given in Áshuri [Neo-Assyrian] script and Aramaic language.”  Juanjo Gabina How Similar Was the Phoenician Language to the Hebrew Language? “The ‘Paleo-Hebrew’ language is a Canaanite Phoenician language with writing. As evidenced by the Samaritan Torah that preserves these ancient [Old Hebrew] texts. According to tradition, Ezra adopted the square script of the Aramaic alphabet instead of the Canaanite Phoenician, nicknamed the Paleo-Hebrew [1954 AD], during the post-exile restoration of Israel in the 5^th century BC. When the Aramaic alphabet became the Hebrew alphabet, Hebrew parchments were written mainly in Aramaic characters.”

{{Sidelight: The Jewish philosopher Philo (c 20 BC – 50 AD) lived in Alexandria, Egypt.  Philo On the Life of Moses 2:5:26 “In olden time [450 BC?] the laws were written in the Chaldean language, and for a long time they remained in the same condition as at first, not changing their language.”  Then prior to 132 BC, Jewish scholars translated the OT into the old Greek version.  ibid 2:7:38-40 “In the case of this translation of the law, exactly corresponding Greek words were employed to translate literally the appropriate Chaldáic words, being adapted with exceeding propriety to the matters which were to be explained. If Chaldeans were to learn the Greek language, and if Greeks were to learn Chaldean, and if each were to meet with those scriptures in both languages, namely, the Chaldaic and the translated version, they would admire and reverence them both as sisters, or rather as one and the same….to go along with the most pure spirit of Moses.”  ibid 2:41:224 “The Passover is celebrated, which in the Chaldaic language is called páscha.”  Philo On the Embassy to Gaius 1:4 “This nation of the suppliants is in the Chaldaic language called Israel.”  Marg Mowczko The Septuagint “Philo refers to the original language of the Old Testament as Chaldean rather than Hebrew.”  Ezra had translated the OT into Chaldee?  (And Philo didn’t use the Greek term Hebraís, “Hebrew” g1446 noun, to refer to Aramaic.)}}

Omniglot: Paleo-Hebrew “By the 6^th century BC the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet was gradually replaced by the Imperial Aramaic alphabet, which developed into the Hebrew square script.”  The Ashuri script.

In 330 BC, Greece conquered the Persian Empire.  Greek became the trade language for the Grecian Empire.  No longer was it the Aramaic of the Persian Empire.  Koine/common Greek, a (Hellénic) Indo-European language, was now spoken.  Many Jews in the diáspora (dispersion) accepted Greek culture, becoming Héllenized and speaking Greek.  Some continued to speak Aramaic.  Most Jews in Judea kept speaking Aramaic.  During this period, regional dialects of Imperial Aramaic began to emerge.

Most Jews everywhere no longer knew the lip of Canaan, Old Hebrew Judahite.  So Jews translated all the OT scriptures into koine Greek.  This old Greek version was completed before 132 BC.  Literate Greek-speaking Jews in the diaspora could then read the OT text!  The old Greek version later became our Septuagint/LXX.  The LXX wouldn’t have been so needed if most Jews still knew Judahite.

The Grecian Empire lasted until the 1^st century BC.  The Roman Empire followed. The Greek language continued as the commercial language of the Roman Empire too.  (Latin would become the language of the Roman army and higher administration.)  Many Jews, Hellenists, spoke Greek.

This topic is continued and concluded in “Aramaic in the Bible (2) – New Testament”.  It notes the Aramaic Tárgums, Aramaic words seen in the gospel accounts, and traces Aramaic to the present day.

Coveting – Wrong and Right Desire

The verb covet came into English in the 1200s AD from the Old French word covoitier.  “Covet” was used in the Wycliffe Bible (1395 AD), Coverdale Bible (1535), Tyndale Bible (1536), KJV (1611), and others.  In the middle English of that period, covet could refer to either a right/good desire or a wrong/bad desire.  “Covet” was like a synonym for the verb “desire”.

Use of the word covet is becoming less common in today’s society.  Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines covet: 1. “To wish for earnestly. [e.g.] covet an award.”  2. “To desire (what belongs to another) inordinately.”  Coveting is a desire for what a person doesn’t have, or doesn’t have enough of.  An earnest desire can be right or wrong, good or evil.  Coveting of itself is ‘morally neutral’.  The context of the Bible verse/passage shows whether that coveting was good or bad.

We may usually think of coveting as a wrong desire, for something a person cannot rightfully have some day.  The Lord’s Ten Commandments/Decalogue/Testimony doesn’t forbid all coveting; basically they forbid the coveting of what belongs to another, an inordinate desire.

Ex.20:17 “You shall not covet [chamád Strongs h2530, Hebrew] your neighbor’s house, you shall not covet [chamad] your neighbor’s wife, his servants, his work animals …anything that belongs to your neighbor.”  De.5:21 “Neither shall you desire [chamad] your neighbor’s wife, neither shall you covet [aváh h183] your neighbor’s house, his field, servants, work animals…or anything that is your neighbor’s.”  (Also idolaters desired/coveted other gods.)

Following are Old Testament (OT) verses which contain Hebrew and Greek Septúagint/LXX verbs translated “desire”, “covet”, “delight”, etc. in English.  Verses which reflect a right/good desire are in bold text; verses which reflect a wrong/bad desire are in normal text.

One such Hebrew verb is chamad h2530.  It occurs 20 times in the OT: Ge.2:9, 3:6; Ex.20:17, 34:24; De.5:21, 7:25; Jsh.7:21; Jb.20:20; Ps.19:10, Ps.68:16; Pr.1:22, 6:25, 12:12, Pr. 21:20; SSol.2:3; Is.1:29, 44:9, 53:2; Mi.2:2.  Chamad usually referred to wrong/bad desires.

Another Hebrew verb translated “desire”, “covet”, “lust for”, “long for” “crave”, etc. is avah h183.  It occurs 26 times in the OT: Nu.11:4; De.5:21, De.12:20, De.14:26; 1Sm.2:16; 2Sm.3:21, 2Sm.23:15; 1Ki.11:37; 1Ch.11:17; Jb.23:13; Ps.45:11, 106:14, Ps.132:13-14; Pr.13:4, 21:10, 21:26, 21:10, 23:3, 6, 24:1; Ec.6:2; Is.26:9; Je.17:16; Am.5:18, Mi.7:1.  Avah reflects both wrong/bad and right/good desires.

The Greek verb translated “desire”, “covet”, “lust for”, etc. in the OT Septuagint/LXX is epithuméo g1937.  It occurs 42 times.  This Greek word corresponds to both the Hebrew OT chamad h2530 and avah h183.  Epithumeo in the LXX also shows covet/desire as being either bad or good.  As good, ref LXX: De.12:20; De.14:26; 2Sm.3:21; 1Ki.11:37; Ps.45:11; SSol.2:3; Is.26:9.  Bible scholar Spiros Zódiates: Epithumeo “To desire in a good sense…[and] in a bad sense.”

This same Greek verb epithumeo g1937 occurs 16 times in the New Testament (NT): Mt.5:28, Mt.13:17; Lk.15:16, Lk.16:21, Lk.17:22, Lk.22:15; Ac.20:33; Ro.7:7, 13:9; 1Co.10:6; Ga.5:17; 1Ti.3:1; He.6:11; Ja.4:2; 1Pe.1:12; Re.9:6.  Epithumeo in the NT can be either a right/good or a wrong/bad desire.  Again, “covet” is a verb.

Some Greek nouns also relate to coveting.  Pleonexéa g4124 is rendered “covetousness” or greediness.  Dr. Spiros Zodiates: Pleonexea “Covetousness, the desire for having more or for what he has not.”  It occurs 10 times in the NT: Mk.7:22; Lk.12:15; Ro.1:29; 2Co.9:5; Ep.4:19, 5:3; Col.3:5; 1Th.2:5; 2Pe.2:3, 14.  The noun pleonexea, covetousness, indicated a wrong or inordinate desire in scripture.  Never a right desire!  This is unlike the (three) Hebrew & Greek verbs examined above, where “covet” or “desire” of itself was neutral; those verbs could reflect a desire either bad or good.

This Greek noun pleonexea g4124 in the OT LXX is rendered “covetousness” 4 times, “gain”/“spoils” 2 times: Ps.119:36; Is.28:8; Je.22:17; Hab.2:9; and Jg.5:19; Ezk.22:27.  In the LXX verses, covetousness or dishonest gain as a noun indicated a wrong desire…not a right or good desire.

(A corresponding OT Hebrew noun is béhtsah h1215; it occurs 23 times.  The KJV renders it “covetousness” in 10 of those 23 times; all reflect a bad desire: Ex.18:21; Ps.119:36; Pr.28:16; Is.57:17; Je.6:13, 8:10, 22:17, 51:13; Ezk.33:31; Hab.2:9.)

Another Greek noun is pleonéktes g4123, rendered “covetous”.  Although it doesn’t occur in the LXX, there are 4 NT occurrences: 1Co.5:10-11, 6:10; Ep.5:5. The apostle Paul took wrong coveting seriously!

Other Hebrew and Greek nouns relative to “lusts” (e.g. epithumía g1939) aren’t detailed in this topic.

The Greek verb zaylóo g2206 (corresponding to the OT Hebrew qanáh h7065) meant to “envy, be jealous, be zealous, desire strongly”.  It occurs 30 times in the OT LXX.  Also 12 times in the NT: Ac.7:9, 17:5; 1Co.13:4, 1Co.14:1; 2Co.11:2; Ga.4:17 (2), Ga.4:18; Ja.4:2; Re.3:19.  Paul exhorted in 1Co.12:31 KJV & 1Co.14:39 KJV, “Covet earnestly [zayloo] the best gifts”…. “Brethren, covet [zayloo] to prophesy.”  Zayloo g2206 reflects both right desire/coveting/zeal and wrong envy/zeal.

There are additional Hebrew and Greek verbs rendered in English as “take delight in”, “to desire”, “to please”, etc. in various Bible versions.  Those verbs aren’t addressed here.

The Wýcliffe Bible, completed by 1395 AD, was the first Bible in (middle) English.  It was handwritten and copied prior to the invention of the printing press.  Three sample verses from the Wycliffe Bible that reflect “covet” as good:  David and his son Solomon desired to build the house for God, the temple.  Solomon said in 2Chr.2:5 WYC, “The house which I covet to build is great, forsooth [indeed] the Lord our God is great over all gods”.  Paul wrote to the saints in Php.1:8 WYC, “I covet all (of) you in the bowels [inner self] of Jesus Christ”.  In the apocrypha, Sirach wrote of Wisdom in Sir.24:26 WYC (with modern spelling), “All ye that covet me, pass or come to me, and be ye filled….”  Coveting can be good.

The Tyndale Bible, translated from Hebrew and Greek texts, was completed by 1536 AD.  It preceded the 1611 KJV by 75 years.  The Coverdale Bible date is 1535 AD.  1Tim.3:1 TYN/COV “If ye man covets the office of a bishop, he desires a good worke.”  Again, coveting could be good; in middle English the word “covet” meant either good or evil desire.  However, coveting usually reflected evil desire (as in Ex.20:17 KJV & De.5:21 KJV).  In regards to the sluggard in Pr.21:26 KJV, “He covets greedily all day long, but the righteous gives and spareth not”.

bible.org: Everything You Ever Wanted To Know About Coveting “We must be very careful not to conclude that all coveting is evil.”  ecclesia.org: To Covet and Lust Can Be Good, Not Evil “Covet’ and ‘lust’ are neutral words.”  Woodlands Bible Church: Thou Shalt Not Covet “The word ‘covet’ can be used both of good things and bad things.”  av1611 KJV Dictionary Definition: Covet “To desire or wish for, in a good sense. To desire inordinately, in a bad sense.”

The middle English usage of “covet” better reflects the meanings of the old Hebrew verbs for “desire”, chamad h2530 and avah h183.  Again, both of those Hebrew terms could reflect an evil/wrong desire or a good/right desire.  The same goes for the Greek verb epithumeo g1937; it reflected either good or bad.

Although those ancient language terms usually indicated bad desire, the terms of themselves were neutral.  Again, the context determined whether they referred to bad or good, wrong or right.

The Aramaic Bible in Plain English Pr.21:20 “There is coveted treasure and oil in the dwelling of a wise man.”  This Aramaic translation too reflects that “covet” could be good (or bad).

When “covet” is used in modern English, it often denotes bad desire.  Yet saying ‘I covet your prayers’ indicates good desire.  Our word “covet” still reflects both.  As did “covet” in the KJV.  And the KJV continues to be the most popular Bible version in America.  That dual moral intent is still read today.

The task of Bible translation has been called an ‘inexact science’.  Languages change over the centuries, as etymology shows.  Yet more than 400 years ago, “covet” could indicate either right or wrong desire.

The Ten Commandments of Ex.20 and De.5 forbid theft…the act of stealing wives (adultery), property, possessions belonging to another.  Also, the Decalogue forbids idolatry, the act of desiring/worshiping pagan gods (cf. Col.3:5 coveting & idolatry).  But the 10^th Commandment regarding wrong coveting forbids the desiring (the craving, lusting), the thought of the heart, for that which belongs to another.

Jesus referred to the 7^th commandment in Mt.5:27, “You shall not commit adultery”.  v.28 “Whoever looks at a woman [wife, guné g1135] to lust [epithumeo g1937] for her, has committed adultery with her already in his heart.”  Such lusting/coveting broke the 10^th Commandment.  Again, in the Greek OT LXX Ex.20:17 & De.5:21, the verb rendered “covet” is epithumeo.  Coveting preceded taking/theft.

Inordinate coveting can lead to more sins, such as stealing, perjury, and even murder.

We read of incidents of wrong desire/coveting in scripture.  Jsh.7:21 Achán wrongly coveted a garment and silver & gold from among the spoils of Jericho.  1Ki.21:1-29 king Aháb of Israel desired the vineyard owned by a man named Nabóth.  When Naboth refused to sell it to him, Ahab & queen Jezébel conspired to have Naboth stoned to death.  Coveting led to murder.  2Ki.5:14-27 the prophet Elisha’s servant Gehazí coveted, wanting to get presents from the recently healed Syrian general Naamán.  But instead, Gehazi got Naaman’s leprosy!  Ac.5:1-11 Ananías & his wife Sapphíra coveted the proceeds from their land sale in Jerusalem.  They both died.  (see the topic “Lying – Ananias & Sapphira”.)

Ja.1:14-15 “Each person is tempted when he is enticed by his own evil desire [epithumia g1939, noun]. Then when the desire has conceived it gives birth to sin; and when sin is finished, it brings forth death.”  That’s a grave cause and effect, written by Jesus’ relative James!  1Jn.2:16 the desire (epithumia) for wrong selfish gratification, ever-increasing possessions, boastful pride…isn’t from Father God.

All men have desires (chamad & avah); we covet, for right or wrong.  But to desire anything that God disallows us is wrong desiring, wrong ‘coveting’ in a sense!  The desire to amass excessive wealth or possessions far beyond the needs of our family members can be covetousness or avarice.  Perhaps that was the mindset of the rich young ruler who questioned Jesus (Mk.10:17-23)?  Paul wrote in 1Ti.6:8-10, “Having food and clothing, with these let us be content. For the love of money is a root of evil.”  Money as a medium of exchange or even as a store of value/wealth isn’t bad of itself…it’s the love of money or greed that’s bad. (see the three-part series “Money”.)  Php.4:19 God will supply all our needs!

Pornography is a form of wrong desire.  It’s not wrong for a man to view beach pictures of his own wife or a single woman who may well become his someday.  But to lustfully view explicit pics of another man’s wife or a woman he could never in time come to rightfully have…is wrong coveting.

Wrong coveting can be insidious.  The sin of coveting may not show any outward manifestation at first.  It may not be apparent to other people.  They may not be aware that a wrong craving exists in the heart of another.  But God knows our hearts!  1Ki.8:39 “You alone know the hearts of all the sons of men.”

In Ro.7:7 KJV (and Ro.13:9) Paul referred to the Lord’s law about coveting, “Thou shalt not covet [epithumeo g1937]”.  Paul’s brief truncation here of the 10^th Commandment may give the impression that all coveting is bad.  But that’s not always the case in scripture, as we’ve seen!  Again, Ex.20:17 & De.5:21 only refer to wrong, inordinate coveting/desiring for that which belongs to another person.  Ro.7:8-ff Paul went on to confess his own struggles against coveting and sin.  He agonized in v.24, “O wretched man that I am”.  It’s part of our human nature to pursue self-indulgence, not always for good.

Merriam-Webster defines self-indulgence: “Excessive gratification of one’s own appetites or desires.”  Most all persons naturally love themselves and want to preserve their life.  Yet we may indulge in, crave or covet things, practices or habits which don’t truly reflect love of self (or love of others).

We all need leisure time & recreation.  But some fill their minds with violent video games or too much gaming and entertainment in general.  People may crave and become addicted to: drugs, smoking, alcoholic drink, gluttony, sugary desserts & soft drinks which make our bodies too acidic, excessive TV watching or time on the cell phone, sloth, gambling, sports, ‘keeping up with the Joneses’, etc.

Self-control/self-restraint is a fruit of the Spirit (Ga.5:23)!  Our lives should reflect a right balance of beneficial activities.  Pr.25:27 “It’s not good to eat much honey.”  We should practice moderation.  BibleReasons: Moderation “Don’t be obsessed with anything in your life, except for the Lord.”  We’re not to idolize or value any person or thing more than the true God!  We’re to be doing His will.

Ask ourselves…What would Jesus do regarding an inclination or a want we have, if He was in our shoes today?  Paul said, “take every thought captive to obey Christ” (2Co.10:5).  Pr.4:23 “Guard your heart with all diligence.”  How may we guard our heart against wrong desires?  Our hearts tend to wander.

Maintaining an attitude of thankfulness is a means by which we can protect our heart from improper thoughts taking root.  We’re to be thankful for the Lord’s provision and how He’s blessed us!  Paul exhorted in 1Th.5:18, “Give thanks in every circumstance. For this is God’s will for you in Christ Jesus.”  And Ep.5:3-4, “Let sexual immorality, impurity, or covetousness [pleonexea g4124] not even be named among you. Not obscene or foolish talking or vulgar joking, but instead, giving thanks.”

Jon Bloom Fill Your Wandering Heart With Thankfulness “The more it [thankfulness] grows in you, the more spiritual health you will experience, and the less power sin will wield over you.”

We can cultivate the habit of thankfulness, of gratitude.  A grateful heart focuses more on the blessings God has given us, less on (wrong) wants we don’t have.

Yet that’s not to say we shouldn’t have right desires or plans for our future, according to God’s will for us.  Ps.37:4 “Delight yourself in the Lord; and He will give you the desires of your heart.”  The Lord will fulfill the right desires He puts in our heart!  Php.2:13 “It is God who is at work in you, both to will and to do His good pleasure.”  God works in our hearts through the Holy Spirit He has given, 1Co.6:19.

So let’s say ‘No’ to wrong desires (some of chamad & avah, Hebrew) if/when they come to mind.  Instead, let’s be mindful to follow the lead of the Holy Spirit in our daily walk.  And may the Lord graciously influence our hearts by His Spirit, to accomplish His desires & His purposes in our lives!

Universal Christian Salvation (2)

This topic is the continuation of “Universal Christian Salvation (1)”.  The Bible verses addressed in Part 1 won’t be repeated here in Part 2.  Part 1 should be read first.

Universalism or universal Christian Reconciliation is the belief that all or most humans will ultimately be reconciled to God, saved through Jesus.  (It isn’t pluralism; all mans’ religions aren’t from God.)  Two disparate beliefs of Christians are…Eternal Conscious Torment in hell-fire, held by Calvinists & Arminianists…and Annihilationism extinction.  see brief explanations in Part 1.

A person who knows their Bible may cite isolated verses which seem to support any or all of those three main beliefs!  Yet God is love (1Jn.4:8).  Which belief best reflects God’s character, His love & justice?

In Part 1, we began examining pertinent passages in the New Testament (NT) and the Old Testament (OT) Septúagint/LXX which contain the Greek term for “all”…“pas” (Strongs g3956).  This term “pas” occurs 1,240 times in the NT.  Continuing with other pertinent verses containing the word “all” (pas):

In scripture, “all” (pas g3956) can mean ‘each & every’ man, without limits.  e.g. in Ac.1:24, 17:25, Ro.3:23, He.12:23…“all” means ‘each & every’.  But “all” doesn’t always mean ‘each & every’.  (see Part 1).  However, “all” rarely means only ‘some’ (unless exaggeration to prove a point was in view).  And “all” doesn’t mean the minority of the class referred to.  At the least, “all” indicates the majority.

Ro.11:32 Aramaic Bible “God has shut every [g3956] person into disobedience, so that He shall have mercy upon every [g3956] person.”  Here, all Jews and gentiles in parallel.  As all have disobeyed God, all shall eventually receive mercy.  Meyer NT Commentary Ro.11:32 “The totality, namely, all Jews and gentiles jointly and severally.”  Every person.  Barnes Notes Ro.11:32 “All are represented as in prison [under sin], confined by God, to be liberated only in His own way and time.”  Pulpit Commentary “Certainly the prospect of a universal triumph of the gospel…carries with it to his [Paul’s] mind further glories of universal salvation for all.”  As disobedience is universal…mercy is universal.  In parallel.

In Ro.11:26, Paul writes that in time “All [g3956] Israel shall be saved”. (cf. Is.45:25)  That’s quite an assertion!  Grotius said it was “a maxim among the Jews that every Israelite should have a part in the future age”.  Gill Exposition Ho.1:10 “The Jews will be converted, and all Israel saved, Rom.11:25.”  Meyer NT Commentary Ro.11:26 “All Israelites who up to that time shall still be unconverted, will then be converted to salvation.”  But that time isn’t fulfilled yet; it’s into the future.

Peter preached to the Jews at Jerusalem in Ac.3:26. “God raised up His Son Jesus and sent Him to you first, blessing you, by turning every one [g1538 hékastos] of you from your wicked ways.”  But every Israelite hasn’t yet believed, repented, and become converted to salvation.  “All Israel” isn’t saved yet.

1Co.15:22 NASB “For as in Adam all [g3956] die, so also in Christ shall all [g3956] be made alive [g2227].”  Surely, we all die.  Dr. Spiros Zódiates says of the Greek term translated “made alive” (KJV “quicken”) g2227, “Generally used in reference to salvation”.  Family NT Notes 1Co.15:22 “He shall raise to life the whole human family.”  Pulpit Commentary “It is so impossible to understand the phrase, ‘shall all be made alive’, of a resurrection of endless torments.”  This parallel “all” doesn’t allow for an eternal hell-fire.  1Co.15:23 “But each in his own order.”  Not until each believes and repents.

Mt.18:14 “It is not the will of your Father who is in heaven that one of these little ones should perish.”  All humans are children of God, the Father of spirits (He.12:9).  This includes the mentally disabled.  Bengel’s Gnomen Mt.18:14 “We ought to subserve the Divine will in caring for the salvation of all. The universal desire on God’s part to bestow it [salvation].”  Pulpit Commentary “It is inconceivable that anyone can hold the doctrine of the eternal reprobation of certain souls [Calvinism & Arminianism].”

Lk.3:6 “All [g3956] humanity shall see the salvation of God.”  Here Luke quotes Is.40:5 from the old Greek version (which became our Septuagint/LXX).  Cambridge Bible Note Lk.3:6 “The blessedness and universality of the gospel.”  JFB Commentary Lk.3:6 “Every obstruction shall be so removed as to reveal to the whole world the Salvation of God in Him whose name is the ‘Savior’ [Jesus].”  (cf. Lk.2:30-32, Ac.13:47.)  In time, no one will be without opportunity for salvation through belief in Jesus.

But how will the 14-year-old girl who died in an auto accident without knowing God see the “salvation of God”?  Or how will the Eskimo who lived and died in 100 AD without ever even hearing the name of “Jesus” see the “salvation of God”?  The Lord has His ways!  He is just & fair, no respecter of persons.

Jesus stipulated in Jn.6:44-45, “No one can come to Me, unless the Father who sent Me draws him. As it is written in the Prophets [Is.54:13], ‘They shall all [g3956] be taught by God.”  All.  The inducement to come to Jesus is God’s doing.  Gill Exposition Jn.6:44 “They [men] have neither power nor will of themselves.”  (Ro.6:16 “It doesn’t depend on human will or effort, but on God who shows mercy.”  That’s not Arminianism.)  Jn.6:65 “No one can come to Me, unless the Father has enabled him.”  We become enlightened and drawn via God’s Holy Spirit.  Expositor’s Greek Testament Jn.6:65 “All that brings men to Christ is the Father’s gift.”  But does God choose to never draw some men, wanting them instead to burn in hell forever?  Would that reflect love/impartiality, not respecting persons (Ac.10:34)?

Rather, Jn.12:32 “If I am lifted up above the earth, I will make everyone [g3956 pas] want to come to Me.”  Eventually, that is.  (May it involve living more than one physical life?)  Pulpit Commentary Jn.12:32 “The attraction of the cross of Christ will prove to be the mightiest and most sovereign motive ever brought to bear on the human will, when wielded by the Holy Spirit as a revelation.”  It was Father God’s will that Jesus die on a cross (Mt.26:39), for all.

Ac.17:30-31 “The times of ignorance God overlooked, but now commands all [g3956] everywhere to repent…having raised Him [Jesus] from the dead.”  If God was to condemn to eternal torment in hell-fire the ignorant masses who lived before Jesus walked the earth…such condemnation would contradict “God overlooked”!  Meyer NT Commentary Ac.17:30 “Heathenism is based on ignorance.”  Cambridge Bible Ac.17:30 “God hasn’t imputed to men the errors they committed in ignorance.”  Is everlasting torment in a hell a just & fair punishment for ignorance?  Yet God can enable all to repent, in His time.

And not only the masses of gentiles historically who didn’t know God.  Again, “All Israel shall be saved” (Ro.11:26)!  Descendants from all 12 tribes (Ja.1:1) of Israel too, including the Jewish people.  Alfred Edersheim The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, p.116 “In view of Isa.53 and other passages…the Messiah is represented as willingly taking upon Himself all these sufferings, on condition that all Israel – the living, the dead, and those yet unborn – should be saved.”

Ro.14:11 “It is written [Is.45:23], ‘As surely as I live’, says the Lord, ‘Every [g3956] knee will bow to Me and every [g3956] tongue shall confess to God.”  Yes, surely God does live…therefore every human will come to acknowledge Him and bow in worship!  Gill Exposition Ro.14:11 “Everyone that has a tongue.”  Meyer NT Commentary “The correct explanation is: every tongue shall praise God (as the Judge), and therewith submit to His judicial authority.”  No tongues are left in hell-fire cursing God.

The Lord doesn’t force people to honor and worship Him, against their will.  They’ll do so of their own free will.

He.2:8-9 “You [Father God] have put all [g3956] things in subjection under His [the Son of Man’s, v.6] feet. But now we do not yet see all things subjected to Him. But we see Jesus…that He might taste death for every [g3956] man.”  JFB Commentary He.2:9 “His death [is] applicable for every individual man.”  Meyer NT Commentary He.2:9 “Distinctly to bring out the thought that Christ died on behalf of each single individual among men, not merely for mankind as a totality.”  Barnes Notes He.2:9 “How could words affirm more clearly that the atonement made by the Lord Jesus was unlimited in its nature and design? The advocates of the doctrine of limited atonement [e.g. Calvinists] cannot thus use scripture language to express their belief.”  Christ’s atoning death isn’t limited to God’s elect in this age alone.

1Co.15:28 “When all [g3956] things shall have been subjected to Him [the Son], then the Son Himself will be subjected to the One [Father God] who subjected all [g3956] things to Him [the Son], that God may be all in all [g3956].”  Totality.  In the final consummation, all will be reconciled and bow to God…“all in all”.  (And Jesus the Son too will still be in subjection to His Father’s greater authority, cf. 1Co.11:3.)  Benson Commentary 1Co.15:28 “The Godhead…may be over all beings, in all places, and the immediate object of their worship and service.”  Pulpit Commentary 1Co.15:28 “It is quite an easy matter for commentators to say that the scope of the words ‘must be confined to believers’, if they chose to make ‘all’ mean ‘some’. I confine myself to…‘All things’, and therefore all men, without any interruption.”  No rebels.  It seems that “all” here, at the very least, indicates the vast majority!

Col.1:19-20 “Through Him [Jesus the Son] to reconcile all [g3956] things to Himself [God]…whether things on earth or in heaven.”  Cambridge Bible Col.1:20 “The human and angelic ‘worlds’ are the objects of the ‘reconciliation’ in view here.”  Vincent Word Studies Col.1:20 “Must be taken in the same sense as in Col.1:16-18, the whole universe, material and spiritual.”  Meyer NT Commentary Col.1:20 “The only sense therefore is, that the entire universe has been reconciled with God through Christ.”

Ti.2:11 “The grace of God has appeared, bringing salvation to all [g3956] men.”  God most graciously sacrificed His Son Jesus.  Barnes Notes Ti.2:11 “None were excluded from the offer; that provision had been made for all.”  Benson Commentary “It concerns all persons, in whatever situation or condition.”  Expositor’s Greek Testament “The all-embracing scope of the saving grace of God.”  In time, will all persons who ever lived hear this good news and have opportunity for God’s salvation?

He.8:11 “They shall not teach each one his countryman, and each his brother, saying, ‘Know the Lord,’ for all [g3956] will know Me, from the least of them to the greatest of them.”  This is to result from the New Covenant and the indwelling Holy Spirit.  Barnes Notes He.8:11 “It does not mean that all persons, in all lands, would know the Lord – though the time will come when that will be true.”  That time is still yet to come.  To date, only some have known the Lord (via the Holy Spirit).

Php.2:10-11 “At the name of Jesus everyone [g3956] in heaven, on earth, and in the world below will bow the knee. And every [g3956] tongue will confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.”  This indicates universality!  cf. 1Pe.3:19.  Geneva Bible Php.2:10 “All creatures will at length be subject to Christ.”  Meyer NT Commentary Php.2:10 “The bowing of the knee represents adoration.”  Cambridge Bible Php.2:10 “Created existence, in its heights and depths…being said to worship.”  Pulpit Commentary Php.2:10 “All Creation…uniting in the universal adoration.”  Ellicott Commentary Php.2:11 “The acknowledgement of universal Lordship and majesty.”  Yet some have died cursing God.

The apostle John envisioned in Re.5:11-14, “And every [g3956] created thing – which is in heaven, on the earth, under the earth, in the sea, and all [g3956] that are in them – I heard saying ‘To the One who sits on the throne, and to the Lamb [Jesus], be blessing and honor and glory and dominion to the ages of the ages. Amen.”  Bengel’s Gnomen Re.5:13 “The harmonious song of all the inhabitants whom the four quarters of the universe contain.”  Pulpit Commentary Re.5:13 “All animated creation now joins in the ascription of praise.”  Robertson’s NT Word Pictures Re.5:13 “No created thing is left out.”

So this is total.  All will give honor and praise to the Lord.  Again, this is done of their own free will.  There are none left in a “hell” agony, resisting God!

John also envisioned in Re.21:1, 4, “I saw a new heaven and a new earth; for the first heaven and earth had ceased to exist. He [God] shall wipe away every tear from their eyes; and death will not exist any more; or mourning or crying or pain; for the former things have ceased to exist.”  There’s no cries of pain & torment from a hell-fire!  (also ref the two-part topic, “Gehenna”.)  Gill Exposition Re.21:4 “There will be nothing to afflict the mind.”  The gates of Hades will not be able to stand (Mt.16:18)!

Can we believe…no more crying or pain will exist?!  According to Bible scholar F.F. Bruce, “Eternal conscious torment is incompatible with the revealed character of God.”

John did write of a “second death” (Re.2:11, 20:6, 14, 21:8).  Jewish Targums refer to a second death as annihilation for the very few who remain incorrigibly wicked, after all is said & done.  see “Gehenna”.

According to the old religious periodical Manford’s Monthly Magazine, Abraham Lincoln said in regards to eternal punishment: “If God be a just God, all will be saved or none.”  Lincoln appointed a universalist minister as a U.S. Army Chaplain during the Civil War.  Protestant ministers objected because the man believed in the salvation of all souls, that even the Confederate rebels would be saved!  Lincoln’s response was…if that be so, then he deserved to be a Chaplain in the U.S. Army.” (ref Nelson Simonson Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography.)

William J. Wolf The Almost Chosen People, p.105-106 “Describing a theological discussion in 1858 in Lincoln’s office. He…cornered his interrogators and left no room to doubt or question his soundness on the atonement of Christ, and salvation finally of all men. He didn’t pretend to know when that event would be consummated, but that it would be the ultimate result, that Christ must reign…over all.”

How can God bring to pass the salvation of most all individuals who ever lived, via the sacrifice of Jesus?  Historically, many or most people lived & died without believing in Jesus, or never hearing His name!  Such as the multitudes of gentiles who lived in BC times, before Jesus’ incarnation.  They didn’t believe and repent, two requirements for salvation (Mk.16:16; Jn.3:18, 36; Lk.13:3; Ac.2:38, 16:31).

Yet God is able to bring to pass all things, according to His will, His word!  Universal Salvation is great news concerning our ancestors, family members, friends & loved ones who died unconverted/unsaved!  Their ultimate fate wouldn’t be eternal torment in hell-fire!  So, it goes without saying, we Christians should hope that Universal Reconciliation for all through Jesus will eventually become a reality.

To explore how God might bring to pass the salvation of most everyone who ever lived, see the topic “Rebirth to Physical Life”.

Universal Christian Salvation (1)

All of us Christians have ancestors, friends, and loved ones who died unconverted.  They may (or may not) have been generally good people…but they didn’t believe ‘Jesus saves’.  Are they doomed to an eternity of torment in hell-fire?  This topic seeks to satisfactorily answer that question, that dilemma.

Nancy Evans Bush Dancing Past the Dark, p.82-83 “As simply a place for the dead, the idea of an underworld has existed as long as there have been societies. Many of the underworlds look remarkably similar, their function as a place of punishment…eternal punishment is a concept only within some sects of Christianity.”  (Also there are Islamic scholars who believe in an eternal hell/jahannam.)

There are three main Christian beliefs regarding the ultimate destiny of erring humans: #1 Eternal Conscious Torment in hell-fire; #2 Annihilationism; #3 Universal Reconciliation/Salvation.  This topic focuses on Universal Reconciliation through Christ Jesus, that is, Christianity.  Protestant views….

Calvinism is a Protestant theology named after the Swiss reformer John Calvin (1509–1564).  Calvinists think that God doesn’t desire to reconcile or save all of humanity, because God elected to save only a few.  They think most humans are predestined by God to receive eternal conscious torment/punishment in hell-fire (#1).  This seems sadistic.  (also ref the two-part topic, “Gehenna”.)

Arminianism is a Protestant theology named after the Dutch theologian Jacóbus Armínius (1560–1609).  It is today’s most common Christian view.  Arminians think that God wills for all people to be saved through Jesus.  But they think that God is unable to save or reconcile most of humanity, because God won’t infringe on the free will He gave to mankind.  Arminianism thinks that a man may freely choose to accept or reject God.  And those who reject God will then be tortured forever in hell-fire (#1).

Annihilationism (#2) is the belief that the wicked who don’t know God will perish, ceasing to exist.  It is also called Conditional Immortality; the fate of the wicked isn’t eternal life in hell-fire torment.

Universalism or universal Christian Reconciliation is the belief that all or most humans will ultimately be reconciled to God, saved through Jesus (#3).  This may involve living more than one physical life.

However, Christian Universalism doesn’t mean that false religions (e.g. New Age) are of God, or that sin is okay!  Jesus declared in Jn.14:6, “I Am the way, the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through Me.”  Ac.4:12 Peter said of Jesus, “There is no other name under heaven…by which we must be saved.”  According to the New Testament, Jesus is the only way to (universal) salvation!

A person who knows their Bible may cite isolated verses which seem to support any or all of those three main beliefs!  Yet God is love (1Jn.4:8).  Which belief best reflects God’s character, His love & justice?

New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, v.12, p.96 (quoted in Bob Evely At the End of the Ages, p.113). “In the first five or six centuries of Christianity, there were six theological schools; of which four (Alexandria, Antioch, Caesárea, and Edessa-Nísibis) were Universalist, one (Ephesus) accepted [annihilationist] conditional immortality, one (Carthage or Rome) taught [hell-fire] endless punishment of the wicked.”  From approximately 170–430 AD…four schools believed in Christian universalism, one school believed in annihilationism, one school believed in eternal conscious torment.

Let’s examine Bible verses supporting Christian Universalism; most people will eventually be saved.

In the New Testament (NT) and in the Old Testament (OT) Septúagint/LXX, the Greek term for “all” is “pas” (Strongs g3956).  This term “pas” occurs 1,240 times in the NT, and 7,000 times in the LXX.  Following are representative verses containing the word “all”/“pas”.

The Greek term pas can mean each & every (person).  In Ep.4:6 e.g., the apostle Paul asserted that there is “One God and Father of all [pas g3956], who is above all [pas g3956].”  Here, “all” indicates ‘each & every’; all are below Father God.  Ellicott Commentary Ep.4:6 “The word ‘all’ must be taken as applying to all God’s rational creatures, made in His image (and indeed even to all His creatures).”  Also 2Co.5:10 “We must all (pas g3956] be made manifest before the judgment seat of Christ.”  Everyone must.  Barnes Notes 2Co.5:10 “All’ – None shall escape by being unknown.”

Some pertinent OT LXX verses with “all” (pas g3956): Ps.22:27-29 “All the ends of the earth shall remember and turn to the Lord; all the families of the nations shall worship before Him…All who descend into the earth shall fall down before Him.”  All peoples who lived & died to eventually worship the Lord!  Clarke Commentary Ps.22:27-29 “Each family shall embrace it [the gospel] for their own salvation. They shall worship before Jesus the Savior. Every dying man shall put his trust in Christ.”  Benson Commentary Ps.22:29 “The whole human race.”  All die.  Gill Exposition Ps.22:29 “Who go down to the house of the grave’. Christ is Lord, both of the dead and living.”  Lord of all (Ac.10:36)!

Ps.65:2-3 “Praise becomes Thee, O God. To you all flesh shall come. You shall pardon our sins.”  Pulpit Commentary Ps.65:2 “In this Psalm the writer [David] is universalist, and embraces all mankind.”

Is.40:5 LXX “The glory of the Lord shall appear, and all flesh shall see the salvation of God.”  (Luke quotes this OT verse in Lk.3:6.)  Barnes Notes Is.40:5 “All human beings.”  This must be yet future.

Many or most people in history lived their lives without ever hearing the name of Jesus/Yeshúa.  (The only name by which there is salvation, according to Peter in Ac.4:12.)  Individuals who never heard His name or never knew the Lord’s way of life…would a loving & just God condemn them in their ignorance to endless torment in hell-fire?!  Is that really the kind of God we worship and serve?

The Lord foretold in Is.45:23 LXX, “By Myself I swear, My word has gone out of My mouth; that to Me every [g3956] knee shall bow, and every [g3956] tongue shall swear by God”.  God swore by Himself!  (cf. He.6:13 “When God made His promise to Abraham, since He could swear by no one greater, He swore by Himself.”)  Ellicott Commentary Is.45:23 “The highest form of asseverátion.”  Benson Commentary “The highest and most solemn oath possible.”  Pulpit Commentary Is.45:23 “This universal turning to God.”  Poole Commentary “A posture of reverence and subjection.”  Is the Lord able to bring it to pass…will every knee bow and will every tongue swear allegiance to God?

Joel 2:28 LXX the Lord promised, “I will pour out My Spirit upon all [g3956] flesh”.  (Peter quotes this verse in Ac.2:17 when the Holy Spirit outpouring began at Pentecost.)  Cambridge Bible Jl.2:28 “The measure of spiritual illumination will be extended to all. ‘All flesh.”  JFB Commentary Jl.2:28 “The consequent conversion of the whole world (Isa.2:2, 11:9, 66:23; Ro.11:12, 15).”  Scriptures indicate every knee will then bow in worship to God.

However, the Greek term for “all”, pas g3956, doesn’t always mean ‘each & every’.  Mk.1:36-37 “Simon and his companions searched for Him [Jesus]. They found Him and said to Him, ‘The people are all [pas g3956] looking for You.”  Here, “all” doesn’t mean ‘each & every’.  Gill Exposition Mk.1:37 “Not all the men in the world, nor, all the inhabitants of Capernaúm [v.21], but a large number of them.”  Key is the context in which all/pas g3956 appears.

Jn.3:26 “He [Jesus’ disciples, Jn.4:1-2] is baptizing, and all are coming to Him.”  But not each & every person came for baptism.  Cambridge Bible Jn.3:26 “All’ – an exaggeration very natural in their excitement.”  Rather, ‘many are coming’ (as in the Aramaic Bible rendering) conveys the meaning.

Yet would a God whose character is love (1Jn.4:16) only elect a comparative few for salvation?!  What about the ignorant multitudes who lived in BC times, before Jesus incarnated in the 1^st century AD?

Paul wrote in Ro.3:23, “All have sinned”.  Here, “all” does include each & every adult (except Jesus – 1Pe.2:22, 2Co.5:21).  Meyer NT Commentary “The sinning of every man is presented as a historical fact.”  And Ro.6:23 “The wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus.”

Lk.13:3 Jesus warned, “Unless you repent, you will all likewise perish [g622]”.  Ro.2:4 “The kindness of God leads you to repentance.”  To who all does God give repentance (2Ti.2:25), so they won’t perish?

Peter wrote in 2Pe.3:9, “The Lord…not willing that any perish [g622], but that all should come to repentance”.  Benson Commentary 2Pe.3:9 “Any human being, any soul that He has made.”  God wills no one perish eternally, that all (eventually) repent from sin!  Cambridge Bible “Here the word ‘perish’ doesn’t mean annihilation, but the state which is the opposite of salvation.”  Expositor Greek Testament “His will is not even that ‘some’ should perish.”  He is God; in due time, can He bring to pass His will?

Job came to realize the Lord’s omnipotence.  Jb.42:2 LXX “I know that You can do all [g3956] things, and nothing is impossible with You.”  God is more than able to bring to pass His purposes & desires!  Gill Exposition Jb.42:2 “Job knew that…He [God] had a right to do what He pleased.”

1Ti.2:3-6 “God our Savior, who wills [g2309] all people be saved and come to the knowledge of the truth. Who gave Himself as a ransom for all people.”  In this passage, “all” seems to include everyone.  (cf. the Lord’s assertion in Is.55:11 LXX, “So shall My word be…until the things that I willed [g2309] shall have been accomplished.”)  God’s will be done!  Vincent Word Studies 1Ti.2:4 “Prayer to God for all is acceptable to Him, because He wills the salvation of all.”  Meyer NT Commentary 1Ti.2:4 “In this verse the idea of the universality of God’s purpose is clearly expressed.”  Clarke Commentary 1Ti.2:5 “God equally wills the salvation of all.”  Barnes Notes 1Ti.2:6 “Who gave Himself a ransom for all’…a proof that God desires the salvation of all.”  JFB Commentary 1Ti.2:6 “In behalf of all, not merely for a privileged few.”  Thomas Whittemore (1800-1861) wrote, “1Ti.2:4 Undoubtedly to be understood all the human race”.  The passage indicates…God wills all be saved, our Savior died for all.  Parallel.  So it seems contradictory that God would elect only a few, predestining the majority to eternal torment!

1Ti.4:10 “The living God, who is the Savior of all people, especially [g3122] of those that believe.”  But not only of those that believe (now).  cf. Ga.6:10 “Do good to all, especially [g3122] to those of the household of faith.”  Do good not only to those of the household of faith, those that believe now.  cf. 2Ti.4:13 bring all the books or scrolls, especially the parchments.  Not only the parchments.  God will save ‘all’.  He does good to all of humanity created in His image.  He saves them out of trouble during their lives.  Ps.145:9 “God is good to all. His mercies are over all His works.”  Poole Commentary 1Ti.4:10 “[God] the Preserver of man and beast.”  And He’s the Savior of all, spiritually too.  But not until their time comes, when they believe & repent (Mk.16:16 & Ac.2:38).

Ro.5:12 “Just as sin entered the world through one man [Adam] and death through sin, so death spread to all people because all sinned.”  Sin is universal.  JFB Commentary Ro.5:12 “Thus death reaches every individual of the human family.”  (The next verses, Ro.5:13-16, are in parenthesis.)  Ro.5:17-19 “How much greater is the result of that done by the one man, Jesus Christ. As through one trespass all people were condemned, so through one righteous act all people were justified to [eternal] life. For as by one man’s disobedience many were made sinners, so by the obedience of the One many will be made righteous.”  This passage too reflects parallelism.  Cambridge Bible Ro.5:18 “The parallel of Adam and Christ.”  Barnes Notes Ro.5:18-19 “With the same certainty, to the same extent. Connected with eternal life. The ‘many’ – corresponding to the term in the former part of the verse, evidently commensurate with it; for there is no reason in limiting it to a part, any more than there is in the former.”  Poole Commentary Ro.5:18 “Many’ is sometimes put for ‘all’, as in Dan.12:2.”  It’s not only “many” who have sinned…everybody has sinned!  Pulpit Commentary Ro.5:18 “Indisputably denoting universality of effect.”  In parallel…as all have sinned, all will (in time) be justified to eternal life through Jesus!

However, we Bible readers may well recognize parallelism & universality in a passage…and yet dismiss its implication because of our presuppositions, preconceived notions, and past (false) teaching.  The same even goes for some Bible commentators (quoted by me), resulting in their seeming to contradict themselves elsewhere.  (This can give the impression of cherry-picking his contradictory comments.)

Questions to ponder: What is the ultimate fate of the 14-year-old girl who died last week in a car crash, without knowing the Lord?  What of the Maori tribesman who died in 1500 AD in New Zealand, never having heard the name of Jesus the Savior?  Do we think they’re doomed everlastingly to hell-fire?  Would an eternity of torment represent just retribution for them, as fair return for a few decades of life spent in sin or ignorance?  Yet God is just (Jn.5:30, Re.15:3).

{Sidelight: The earliest Christian missionaries didn’t arrive in New Zealand until 1814!  New Zealand History: Missionaries “They [Maori] rejected the low-church missionaries’ gloomy emphasis on an angry God looking to damn their souls to eternal fires. There were no Maori baptisms until 1830.”  It’s understandable that in 1814 those Maori would reject any thought of their (ignorant) grandparents or ancestors, deceased before missionaries arrived, burning forever in hell!  God is love, not sadism.}

Christian afterlife belief #3 (see the top), regarding the ultimate destiny or fate of mankind, offers a great hope…for our ancestors, family members, friends & loved ones who died ‘unsaved’!  This topic is continued in “Universal Christian Salvation (2)”.

 

Spirits – Made by God in Light

What is spirit?  Spirit is non-material essence.  Merriam-Webster Dictionary shows fourteen definitions for “spirit”.  The first two are: “An animating or vital principle held to give life to physical organisms; a supernatural being or essence.”  Scientific theories regarding aether, vacuum energy, neutrinos, which some relate to “spirit”, won’t be discussed here.  This topic mostly discusses supernatural spirit beings.

God is Spirit.  Holy.  Jesus said in Jn.4:24, “God is (a) spirit, and those who worship Him must worship in spirit and in truth”.  Father God is Self-Existent spirit.  God isn’t physical matter.  No physical object or image can adequately depict God.  The Godhead or God Family is spirit essence…invisible (1Ti.1:17), ethereal.  2Co.3:17 “The Lord is that Spirit.”  The ascended Jesus is spirit at His Father’s right hand in heaven (He.1:3).  In Lk.24:39, Jesus said that a spirit being doesn’t have flesh and bones.

God is Light.  1Jn.1:5 “God is light, and in Him is no darkness at all.”  Jesus said in Jn.8:12, ”I Am the Light of the world”.  cf. Jn.12:46.  The Old Testament (OT) prophecy quoted in the New Testament (NT) Mt.4:16 refers to Jesus. “The people who sat in darkness [in Galilee] saw a great light.”  1Ti.6:16 God dwells on His heavenly throne in brilliant light which physical human eyes cannot behold or approach.  (Also see the topics “Godhead in Prehistory” and “Jesus Is God…Jesus Has a God”.)

Psalm 104, written by David, is about God’s Creation.  Ps.104:1-3 Septúagint/LXX “Bless the Lord. You are very great. Who robes Thyself with Light [Ge.1:3] as with a garment; spreading out the heaven [Ge.1:8] as a curtain.”  Compare the Creation account sequence in Ge.1:1-8.  After Light was brought forth, lesser spirit beings were then made.

God makes His angels spirits.  After Light, continuing with Ps.104:4 LXX, “Who makes His angels spirits”.  The angelic order is composed of spirit beings.  Cambridge Bible “It is clear that the spiritual nature of angels isn’t in question here.”  He.1:7 of the NT quotes the Ps.104:4 LXX “angels”.

God’s heavenly host includes angels.  Ne.9:6 “You are the Lord, who has made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host. The host of heaven worships You.”  Cambridge Bible Ne.9:6 “Most probably means the created spirits.”  Benson Commentary “All the inhabitants of heaven.”  Poole Commentary “The angels, who are so called.”  Ps.148:2-4 “Praise Him, all His angels; Praise Him, all His hosts! Praise Him, sun and moon; all stars of light! Praise Him, highest heavens!”  Angelic voices on high praise the Lord.  At Jesus’ human birth, in Lk.2:13 the heavenly host was seen extolling God. “Suddenly there appeared with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God.”

Angels serve as messengers, agents, and helpers. They can make themselves visible to man as need be, appearing as humans.  The writer to the Hebrews admonished in He.13:2, “Don’t neglect to show hospitality to strangers, for some have entertained angels without knowing it”.

The Hebrew term rendered angel in our OT is maláwk, Strongs h4397.  It means messenger.  The term malawk occurs over 200 times in the OT.  It also refers to human messengers and the Messenger of YHVH.  (see “Michael in the Bible”. The only archangel so-named in scripture is Michael, Jude 1:9.)

The Greek term for angel in the LXX and NT is aggelos g32 (pronounced ángelos).  It occurs 185 times in the NT.  It can also refer to human messengers. (e.g. Ge.32:3 LXX, and John the Baptizer in Mt.11:10.)

The Lord Christ shared in the Creation.  Col.1:16 “By Him [Christ the Son] all things were created, both in the heavens and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions, rulers or authorities.”  The Creation includes the heavenly host of beings, normally not visible to human eyes.  JFB Commentary “Invisible – the world of spirits.”  Barnes Notes “The angels we cannot see. Inhabitants of distant worlds we cannot see.”  Gill Exposition “Angels were made by him, Heb.1:7; and, as the Jewish writers say, on the 2^nd day of the creation, though some say on the 5^th.”  Benson Commentary Col.1:16 “The different orders of angels, both those that stood and those that afterward fell.”

According to Jn.1:1-14, Jesus was the primordial Word or Lógos (Greek) of God.  Jn.1:3-9 “The Word was God. All things came into being through Him [Christ the Word/Logos]…That Word was the true Light [g5457].”  “All things” included lesser spirit beings.  Bengel’s Gnomen Jn.1:3 “All things, which are outside of God, were made; and all things which were made, were made by the Logos [Jesus, v.14].”  Expositor’s Greek Testament Jn.1:3 “In 1Cor.8:6 Paul distinguishes between the Father as the primal source of all things and the Son as the actual Creator.”  Christ the Light was Executive Creator.

He.12:9 God is the “Father of spirits”.  Barnes Notes He.12:9 “God is Himself a Spirit [Jn.4:24]. Angels and human souls [or spirits] may be represented as especially His offspring.”  JFB Commentary “God is a spirit Himself, and the Creator of spirits like Himself, in contrast to men who are flesh.”  Meyer’s NT Commentary “God, who is Father in regard to the higher spiritual domain of life.”  Pulpit Commentary “It isn’t human spirits only that are here in view. God is the Father of all ‘the spirits.”

The cherubim (plural) or cherúbs were another class of spirit beings.  Telus.net: Cherubim “Cherubim are spiritual beings.”  They serve as God’s guardians.  The Hebrew term cherub (h3742) occurs 90 times in the OT.  Ge.3:24 God cast Adam & Eve from the garden of Eden, and then stationed cherubim on the east side to guard the way to the Tree of Life.  Scripture doesn’t depict cherubs as chubby human babies with wings flying around!

Ex.25:16-22 Moses was to construct the mercy-seat of God’s Tabernacle with two winged golden cherubs atop the Ark of the Testimony; there the Lord ‘dwelt’ with ancient Israel.  Ellicott Commentary Ge.3:24 “The office of the cherub here is to guard the Paradise [Garden], lest man should try to force an entrance back; and so too the office of the cherubs upon the mercy-seat was to protect it, lest anyone should impiously approach it, except the high-priest on the Day of Atonement.”  In 1Ki.6–8, figures of cherubim were later carved & embroidered (2Chr.3:14) in Solomon’s Temple.  (This wasn’t idolatry.)  In the Greek NT, cheroubim g5502 occurs only in He.9:5.

Ezk.10 is Ezekiel’s vision of cherubs at the Lord’s portable throne.  Ezekiel calls them “living beings”.  Ezk.10:20 LXX “This is the living being [g2226] that I saw below the God of Israel by the river Chobar, and I knew they were cherubs [g5502].”  How did they appear to Ezekiel?  Ezk.1:1, 5 “I was by the river Chebár among the exiles. There were figures resembling four living beings.”  Ezk.1:10 “The likeness of their faces was the face of a human…the face of a lion…an ox…and an eagle.”  Compare the appearance of the four living beings (g2226), but having six wings, that John envisioned at God’s throne in Re.4:6-9…lion, ox, man, flying eagle.  The Nature and Purpose of the Cherubim “These cherubic forms combine the excellencies of these four chiefs of God’s terrestrial creation.”

Winged sphinxes resembled cherubs.  Wikipedia: Sphinx Both the Egyptian and Greek sphinxes “were thought of as guardians, and often flank the entrances to temples.”  An ancient sphinx composite had the head of a human, the paws & tail of a lion, the hind body of an ox, and the wings of an eagle.  Dr. Raanan Eichler What Kind of Creatures Are the Cherubim? “The prevailing opinion is that the cherub is a winged sphinx…such as that depicted on the sarcophagus of the late 2^nd-millennium BC Phoenician king Ahíram.”  William Finck Cherubs Are Sphinxes “A sphinx is a variation on a cherub.”

Fiery seraphim (plural), seráphs h8314, were another class of spirit beings.  They’re celestial attendant worshipers of God, having three pairs of wings.  In the OT, seraphs only appear in the vision of Is.6:1-7.

They were around the Lord’s throne, praising. “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts; the whole earth is full of His glory.”  Then with a glowing coal of fire from the altar, a seraph figuratively purged Isaiah’s unclean lips & iniquity.  Fire purifies.  Ellicott Commentary Is.6:2 “This is the only passage in which the seraphim are mentioned as part of the host of heaven. ‘Burning ones’…with six wings.”  cf. Rev.4–6.  Gill Exposition Re.4:8 “Cherubim…like the seraphim in Is.6:2.”  Nu.21:6-9 Moses made something like a bronze replica of a seraph, and set it on a pole to aid in healing Israelites bitten by serpents.

The watchers (Da.4:13-17, 23) were another group of spirit beings.  They are discussed in the two-part topic “Watchers and Gen. 6 ‘Sons of God”.

Also there were “24 elders” at God’s throne in heaven.  They are mentioned specifically in Re.4:4, 10; 5:8; 11:16; 19:4.  The apostle John envisioned them in Re.4–5.  Re.4:4 “Around the throne were 24 thrones. On the thrones were 24 elders sitting, dressed in white garments, with crowns of gold on their heads.”  Theologians and Bible commentators have put forth various explanations as to their identity.

The elders wear crowns of gold.  Barnes Notes Re.4:4 “These elders…are of a kingly order. They are human beings.”  In the Bible, elders refer to men.  Gill Exposition “In allusion to the 24 courses of the priests, into which they were divided by David [1Ch.24:4-19].”  Re.5:10 Young’s Literal Translation “And [the Lamb] did make us to our God kings and priests.”  They were as a royal priesthood (ref 1Pe.2:9).

Compellingtruth.com “Information in scripture most likely identifies these 24 elders as representatives of the church.”  Expositor’s Greek Testament Re.4:4 “Heavenly beings, angelic figures corresponding to the ‘thrones’ of Col.1:16. The significance of the doubled 12 has been found in the 12 patriarchs or tribes [of Israel] plus the 12 apostles, or in the 24 classes of the priests.”  Cambridge Bible Re.4:4 “They act as priests in Rev.5:8.”  Pulpit Commentary Re.4:8 lists possible interpretations, including…“The 24 elders represent the great and minor prophets; higher angels – the celestial priesthood”.

Could the 24 elders be redeemed humans who are spirit beings serving on God’s heavenly council or court?  I’ll leave the choice of interpretation to the reader.  (see “Heavenly Host Authorities and Powers”.)

[Aside: Hierarchical angelologies (and demonologies) developed over the centuries in the traditions of Judaism, kabbálah, and medieval Christianity.  That, and other ‘gods’, isn’t discussed here.]

God has given each of us humans our human spirit, the “breath of life” (Ge.2:7).  Is.42:5 God the Lord gives breath to people on earth, “and spirit to those who walk on it”.  Job’s countryman Elihú said in Jb.32:8, “There is a spirit in man, and the breath of the Almighty gives them understanding”.

The human spirit is a vital incorporeal component within our body which imparts consciousness and intellect to our brain.  We are a spirit, dwelling in a physical body on earth.  1Th.5:23 man is made up of “spirit, soul, and body”.

We communicate with God through our spirit.  At conversion, the Holy Spirit (HS) of God joins with our human spirit.  1Co.6:17 “The person who joins himself to the Lord is one spirit with Him.”  Paul wrote to Timothy in 2Ti.4:22, “The Lord be with your spirit”.  The HS becomes part of our persona.  1Co.3:16 “The Spirit of God dwells in you.”

At physical death, our human spirit is to “return to God who gave it”, Ec.12:7.  The dying Stephen said in Ac.7:59, “Lord Jesus, receive my spirit”.  (Ja.2:26 “The body without the spirit is dead…our physical body is then a corpse. Also see the topic “Life and Death – for Saints”.)  Php.1:23 Paul said it was better to depart our physical body and “be with Christ” in heaven with a spiritual body (1Co.15:44, 50).

Jesus prepares our heavenly abode for us.  He said in Jn.14:2-3, “I go to prepare a place for you”.  He.12:22-24 dwelling in heaven are the spirits of men (righteous).  Lk.16:22 God’s holy angels will escort our spirit too, returning it to God who gave it…for His disposition and use.  Lk.16:8-9 as the “sons of light”, we’re welcomed into eternal dwellings.  Our spirit returns to the Light.  1Jn.1:5 God is Light [g5457].  Paul/Saul saw it from afar…Ac.9:3 “Suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him.”

Jn.3:20-21 those who do truth don’t fear the Light.  But the spirits of those who do evil or are unbelieving are afraid to go to the Light at death, to return to God (Ec.12:7).  They stumbled in darkness (Jn.11:10), not receiving the HS.  These may remain for a time as earthbound spirits (ghosts), stuck.

Those who believe in Jesus and repent of sin won’t abide in darkness (Jn.12:46)!  Ps.36:9 “In Thy Light, we shall see light.”  After death, we shouldn’t fear to return to God…going to the Light!  Trust in His destiny for our human spirit.  God is good (Lk.18:19)!  Medical personnel confirm numerous Near Death Experience (NDE) cases where patients saw the light.

Ja.1:17 God is the “Father of lights [g5457]”.  He made spirit beings, and human spirits (and stars too).  Bengel’s Gnomen Ja.1:17 “He is the Father even of the spiritual lights in the kingdom of grace and glory.”  Pr.20:27 LXX “The spirit of man is a light [g5457] of the Lord.”  Gill Exposition Pr.20:27 “The spirit of man…was a bright and burning light at first, but through sin is become a very feeble one.”

Yet Christians whose human spirit is joined to God’s HS are able to figuratively “shine as luminaries [g5458] in the world” (Php.2:15).  Jesus exhorted the disciples with Him in Jn.12:36, “While you have the Light [g5457], believe in the light, in order that you may become sons of light”.  It’s our destiny too!

Re.22:5 “The Lord God has given them light, and they shall reign forever.”  Col.1:12 Father God “has enabled us to share in the inheritance of the saints in Light [g5457].”  Prepared by God, it is the future for our spirits on into eternity…in His heavenly Light!

 

Wine or Grape Juice in Jesus’ Cup? (1)

Bread and wine are symbols which represent the body and blood of Jesus the Savior.  The partaking of these symbols as the eucharist or communion in the early New Testament (NT) church is addressed in the topic “Bread and Wine in the Church”.  Little of the material covered in that topic is repeated here.

At Jesus’ Last Supper before His crucifixion, He instructed His disciples in the symbolic ceremony. Mt.26:26-28 “Jesus took some bread…and said, ‘Take, eat; this is My body’. And when He had taken a cup and given thanks, He gave to them, saying, ‘Drink from it, all of you. For this is My blood of the [new] covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.”  This became the eucharist.

Accordingly, after Jesus’ sacrificial death and resurrection, in the 30s AD a communal sharing of consecrated bread and wine became a regular practice or sacramental rite at church gatherings.

However, there is controversy among church denominations (mostly since the 1800s AD) about what form of beverage should be in the communion “cup”.  This topic addresses the contents of Jesus’ “cup”.

Wikipedia: Sacramental Wine “The majority of mainstream liturgical churches require that sacramental wine be pure grape wine. In most liturgical rites, a small quantity of water is added to the wine when the chalice [cup] is prepared. However, some Christian churches disapprove of the consumption of alcohol, especially by children, and hold that it is acceptable to substitute grape juice for wine. These denominations include Pentecostals, Baptists, Methodists, some Churches of Christ, and other evangelical groups. In this case, generally only pasteurized grape juice is used. In some Protestant churches each communicant drinks from a small individual cup.”  Well-known liturgical churches using wine for communion are the Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, and Roman Catholic.

What is wine?  Merriam-Webster Dictionary’s present definition of wine: “The alcoholic fermented juice of fresh grapes used as a beverage. From Latin vinum.”  If it’s unfermented, it’s not actual wine.

Steve Shirley Should Wine or Grape Juice Be Used For Communion? “Juice becomes fermented when yeast is added to it and it begins to break down the sugars that are present in the juice, producing carbon dioxide and alcohol. However, grape juice does contain small amounts of naturally occurring yeast, and can ferment naturally over time.”

In our Greek NT, “cup” is potáyreeon, Strongs g4221.  It occurs 33 times.  In the NT, cup g4221 refers to: a drinking vessel; or metaphorically, one’s lot or experience, joyous or adverse.  “Cup” as a drinking vessel is seen in: Mt.26:27; Mk.14:23; Lk.22:17, 20; 1Co.10:16, 21, 11:25-28.  What was in Jesus’ cup?

Wikipedia: History of Wine “Consumption of ritual wine was part of Jewish practice since Biblical times and, as part of the eucharist commemorating Jesus’ Last Supper, became even more essential to the Christian Church.”  Reid Mitenbuler What Did Wine Taste Like Thousands of Years Ago? “Priests, monks, and nuns cultivated vineyards to make wine an everyday drink in places where it hadn’t existed before.”  Christian religion actually promoted and increased the knowledge of wine (production)!

In the NT and Old Testament (OT) Septúagint/LXX, the Greek term for “wine” is oínos g3631.  It occurs 33 times in the NT.

In the OT, the most-used Hebrew term for fermented wine is yáhyin h3196.  It occurs 140 times.

But OT “wine” prior to the fermentation process, grape juice, is tiroshé h8492, occurring 38 times.  Tiroshe is translated as “new wine”, in many Bibles.  This “new wine” was unfermented, or less fermented.  Grape juice.  (A half dozen less-used Hebrew terms also relate to wine or alcoholic drink.)

Rex M.D. Russell What the Bible Says About Healthy Living “Some Biblical commentaries suggest that yayin is wine fermented from the previous year, and tirosh is a somewhat less fermented drink from the recent harvest. Others concede that yayin is a fermented and intoxicating beverage, but tirosh is simply freshly squeezed juice from grapes.”  (Ho.4:11 may indicate a fermented tirosh.)

Tirosh would naturally ferment into wine, unless (impractical) steps were taken to preserve it as juice.  Mitenbuler op. cit. “Preservation efforts are the most noticeable culinary difference between ancient and modern wine.”  Wine was a valued product of agriculture.  Let’s compare tirosh and yayin in the OT:

Pr.3:10 “Your vats [yéhqeb h3342] will overflow with new wine [tirosh h8492].”  Ellicott Commentary Pr.3:10 “Vats, into which the newly pressed [grape] juice flowed.”  ref “wine vat” in Mk.12:1.  Cambridge Bible Pr.3:10 “The wine-press of the Jews consisted of two receptacles or vats placed at different elevations; in the upper the grapes were trodden, while the lower one received the expressed [grape] juice.”  (cf. Joel 3:13 “The press [gath h1660] is full, the vats [h3342] overflow.”)  Unfermented grape juice, not wine, flowed from the “winepress” (so called).  Mic.6:15 ESV “You shall tread grapes [or new wine h8492], but not drink wine [h3196].”  Is.65:8 the Lord says new wine (h8492) is found in the cluster of grapes.  Fermented wine/yayin h3196 isn’t found in grapes.  Quora What is Tirosh? “It’s literally grape juice in Hebrew.”  However, word meanings in languages can change over the centuries.

University of Chicago Biblical Notes, 1891, p.181 “Tirosh and Yayin denote not two kinds of wine but the same wine at different stages, before and after fermentation. The juice of the grape is tithed as tirosh [ref 2Ch.31:4-5] but drunk as yayin. At first it is a simple product of husbandry and valued for the promise that is in it. Finally it is treated as a drink, and praised or condemned as it is used or abused.”

Right use of fermented wine can be of benefit.  Ps.104:15 “Wine [yahyin h3196] makes glad the heart of man.”  De.14:25-26 “Go to the place the Lord chooses. You may spend the money for…wine [h3196] or strong drink [h7941 shekár], or whatever your heart desires…and rejoice.”  God encouraged wine-drinking (in moderation) to aid Israel’s rejoicing at His pilgrim feasts.  In Is.25:6 KJV, the prophetic banquet the Lord prepares includes aged wine on the lees h8105 of yeast sediment (from fermentation).

The Jews mixed wine in their water.  2Mac.15:39 “It is hurtful to drink wine or water alone. Wine mingled with water is pleasant, and delights the taste.”  In Bible times, water by itself was often dirty, contaminated with pathogens.  Charles Swindoll Dirty Water, Prohibition, and the Bible “Pure drinking water was often unavailable.”  Mitenbuler op. cit. “Ancient wine provided valuable nutrients and was used to sanitize water well past the Middle Ages.”  Also, Israel would water down their wine.

Paul told Timothy in the NT, 1Ti.5:23 “No longer drink water exclusively, but use a little wine [oinos g3631] for your stomach’s sake and your frequent ailments”.  But excessive alcohol consumption could worsen ailments, and lead to drunkenness.  Paul also wrote, Ep.5:18 “Be not drunk with wine [g3631]”.  Due to its alcoholic content, drinking wine to excess can cause intoxication.  Moderation is key.

Professor R. Laird Harris wrote, “All the wine [of Bible times] was light wine, i.e., not fortified with extra alcohol. Concentrated alcohol was only known in the Middle Ages when the Arabs invented distillation (‘alcohol’ is an Arab word) so…20% fortified wines were unknown in Bible times. Probably ancient wines were 7–10%. To avoid the sin of drunkenness, mingling of water with wine was practiced.”  The blend of water and wine was 50/50–65/35?  Prior to Is.1:22, 700s BC…wine undiluted?

Alfred Edersheim described 1^st century Jewish practices. The Temple, p.187 “Red wine alone was to be used at the Páschal [Passover] Supper, and always mixed with water.”  Cups containing wine were customary at Passover in Jerusalem.  Benson Commentary Pr.23:31 “Red, the color of the best wines in that country, which therefore are called blood, Ge.49:11; De.32:14; and used by them in the Passover.”

Mishnah Pesachim 10:1 “Even the poorest person in Israel must not eat (on the night of the Passover) until he reclines [cf. Lk.22:14]. And they must give him no fewer than four cups of wine.”  Even the poor who couldn’t afford the cost of wine at other times were given wine at Passover.

The Biblical expression “fruit of the vine” (ref Mt.26:29; Mk.14:25; Lk.22:18; Is.32:12; Hab.3:17; Zec.8:12) referred to grapes from the grapevine, common in Palestine.

Wayne Jackson Was the Fruit of the Vine Fermented? “There is considerable historical evidence that the common Passover beverage used in the 1^st century was wine.”  Jesus kept Passover (Lk.2:41-42).

Dr. Jack Lewis states, “Wine was ordinarily used at the Passover and is called ‘fruit of the vine’ in Berakoth 6:1 [Talmud].”  Berakoth 6:1 “Over wine one recites: Who creates fruit of the vine.”

And Jesus’ Last Supper was also a Passover meal celebration!  Jesus told His disciples to prepare it.  Mk.14:12 “On the first day of unleavened bread, when the Passover lamb was being sacrificed, His disciples said to Him, ‘Where do want us to prepare for you to eat the Passover?”  Lk.22:7-8 “Then came the first day of unleavened bread, when the Passover lamb must be killed. ‘Go and prepare the Passover for us to eat.”  This would be His Last Supper.  (see the topic “Jesus’ Last Supper Timing”.)

In the OT the Lord didn’t command wine or any drink at Passover.  But we read from the above sources that wine was the “fruit of the vine”, and was customarily consumed in 1^st century Judea at Passover.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia [ISBE]: Wine “The wine of the Last Supper may be described in modern terms as sweet, red, fermented wine, rather highly diluted.”

The annual Passover was 6 months after the grape harvest in the Land.  Grape juice would’ve naturally undergone some fermentation during that time, even if yeast wasn’t added.  David C. Hopkins Life on the Land, p.186 “Stored [new] wine naturally fermented unless it was boiled down or kept cool.”

Again, in the Greek NT, “wine” is oinos g3631, occurring 33 times.  In the OT Greek LXX, oinos g3631 was used to translate the Hebrew yayin h3196 in 130 of its 140 occurrences.  And the LXX also used oinos to translate the Hebrew tiroshe h8492 in 37 of its 38 occurrences (all except Is.65:8)!  Therefore, we see that the Greek oinos g3631 in the LXX referred to either fermented or unfermented drink.

{Sidelight: The Greek term for vinegar and “sour wine” is óxos g3690.  It occurs in 6 NT verses, all relating to Jesus’ crucifixion (Mt.27:34, 48; Mk.15:36; Lk.23:36; Jn.19:29-30).  Oxos/sour wine g3690 was a variety, quality or adulteration of oinos/wine g3631, such as acrid wine or vinegar.  This cheap “wine” was a common beverage.  It was a stimulant, and had standard wine/oinos and water as a base.  “Wine” and “sour wine” and pure vinegar differed.  (see the topic “Jesus’ Death – the Physical Cause”.)

Vinegar was made by the oxidation of wine or fermented fruit juice, or a mix of barley and wine.  It is highly acidic (acetic acid), and harms the teeth (Pr.10:26).  It wasn’t drank straight.  Livestrong.com What Are the Dangers of Drinking Vinegar? “Drinking vinegar can have unpleasant and dangerous side effects.”  ISBE: Vinegar “Undiluted vinegar was of course undrinkable, but a mixture of water and vinegar makes a beverage that was very popular among the poor.”  It was also popular among soldiers.

The Hebrew OT term for vinegar is chométs h2558, occurring 5 times (Nu.6:3; Ru.2:14; Ps.69:21; Pr.10:26, 25:20).  Nu.6:3 has both chomets h2558 vinegar and yayin h3196 wine.  They’re different Hebrew terms, representing different things.  (Nu.6:3 LXX has oxos g3690 and oinos g3631).  There’s no indication that oxos “sour wine” or vinegar was in the cup at Jesus’ Last Supper Passover meal!}

Also, in Ac.2:13 disciples were mocked, supposedly full of sweet wine (or ‘must’?), g1098 gleúkos.  In the OT LXX, this term is found only in Jb.32:19.  Bible linguists differ regarding what gleukos meant back then.  Callixenus wrote (300s BC), “They were trampling on the grapes and the new wine (gleukos) ran out over the whole road”.  Greek Bible scholar Dr. Spiros Zódiates, “Some believe that it [gleukos] is what distills of its own accord from the grapes which is the sweetest and smoothest. It was mentioned at Pentecost (Ac.2:13) indicating that the ancients probably had a method of preserving the sweetness, and by consequence the strongly inebriating quality of the gleukos for a long time.”

In the NT, oinos g3631 usually referred to fermented wine.  Lk.10:33-34 the good Samaritan poured oil and wine (oinos)…not grape juice…into the traveler’s wounds!  Red wine is an antiseptic.  Mt.9:17 Jesus said new wine (g3631) would cause brittle old wineskins to break (due to the fermentation process).

This topic is continued and concluded in “Wine or Grape Juice in Jesus’ Cup? (2)”.  In it, we’ll discuss concerns and symbolism of wine in Bible times, and when the use of grape juice for communion began.

Jewish Sects of the 1st Century (2)

This Part 2 is the continuation and conclusion to “Jewish Sects of the 1^st Century (1)”.

Harvard scholar Jacob Neusner wrote that there were several ‘Judaisms’.  We’re identifying seven Jewish religious sects & groups that were extant in the Holy Land in the 1^st century…when Jesus lived as a Jew and the temple still existed.  Part 1 discussed: #1 Scribes, #2 Pharisees, #3 Sadducees.  Material in Part 1 won’t be repeated here in Part 2.  We’ll resume the discussion now with group #4.

#4 HERODIANS: Herodianói Strongs g2265, Greek noun; it occurs 3 times in the New Testament (NT).  This party of Hellenistic Jews was partisan to Herod and submitted to Rome.  Herodiáns wielded political power.  They may have been religious Sadducees (see Part 1).

In 40 BC Rome had appointed an Edomite, Herod 1 the Great, as ‘King of Judea’.  (Ending 100 years of Jewish Hasmónean rule, from 140 BC.)  Herod the Great died soon after Christ’s birth (Mt.2:19).  Herod’s kingdom was divided upon his death; his three sons became tetrarchs of provinces in the area.

Herodians are mentioned in Mt.22:16, Mk.3:6, Mk.12:13.  Mk.3:6 “The Pharisees went out and began conspiring with the Herodians against Him [Jesus], how they might destroy Him.”  It seems that tetrarch Herod Ántipas viewed Jesus as a ‘formidable rival’, so Herod’s devotees even joined with Pharisees in wanting to get rid of Jesus.  (Alfred Edersheim The Life And Times of Jesus the Messiah, p.739.)  Jesus warned His disciples in Mk.8:15, “Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and the leaven of Herod”.

Ro.16:11 the believer Herodíon (g2267), whom Paul noted, was a relative Jew possibly from Herod’s family.  The Iduméan Herod 1 the Great had been raised as a Jew.  Barnes Notes Ro.16:7 “These persons [Andrónicus and Junías] and Herodian Ro.16:11, it seems probable they were remote relatives of the apostle [Paul].”  Aristóbulus 5 of Chálcis was Herod 1’s grandson (Ro.16:10?).

The Herodians, though Hellenistic (like the Sadducees), wanted Jewish rule in Judea.  As did the Pharisees.  But the Herodians sought this via a Herodian dynasty on the throne, whereas the Pharisees wanted a restored Davidic dynasty to rule.

Wikipedia: Herodian Dynasty “The Herodian was a royal dynasty of Idumean (Edomite) descent, ruling the Herodian Kingdom and later the Herodian Tetrárchy, as vassals of the Roman Empire.”

Some scholars think there may have been Herodians who regarded Herod himself as a Messiah.  (cf. Ac.12:20-23 the 44 AD death of the showy tetrarch Herod Agríppa 1, grandson of Herod the Great.)

The rule of the Herods ended in the 90s AD, with the death of tetrarch Herod Agrippa 2 (before whom Paul had appeared decades earlier ca 60 AD, Ac.25:13-ff).

#5 ZEALOTS: The Zealots began as Jewish guerrilla bands, active in Galilee in the 1^st century.  They became the Nationalist political party.  Their purpose was to incite the people of Judea to rebel against the dominance of (gentile) Rome, and forcefully remove it from the Land.  The Zealots have been called the ‘extreme opposite’ of the Herodian party.

The Zealots aren’t mentioned in the Bible.  Though the Zealots weren’t a religious group, they favored the Pharisees (not the Sadducees).  Josephus Antiquities of the Jews 18:1:6 “These men [Zealots] agree in all other things with the Pharisaic notions; but they have an inviolable attachment to liberty, and say that God is to be their only Ruler and Lord.”  Josephus referred to the Zealots as the ‘fourth sect’  (after the Pharisees, Sadducees, Éssenes).

One of Jesus’ twelve original disciples was Simon the Cananaéan/zealot.  Simon is called a Cananaean (g2581) in Mt.10:4 & Mk.3:18.  Luke calls him a zealot (g2208 zelotés) in Lk.6:15 & Ac.1:13.  Jacobus de Voragine The Golden Legend “Zelotes is the equivalent of Cana, because cana means zeal.”  The New Theological Movement “St. Simon, ‘the Canaanite’ not from Canaan and ‘the Zealot’ who was no Zealot. Indeed, the name ‘Canaanite’ is closely related to the Hebrew word for ‘zealous.”  Simon the zealous disciple of Jesus likely wasn’t part of the violent Zealot political movement!

The Zealots followed John of Gischála during the Roman–Jewish War of 66–73 AD, taking control of Jerusalem and the temple…until Rome destroyed both Jerusalem and the temple in 70 AD.  Zealot holdouts took the Masáda fortress near the Dead Sea…until they were all found dead by suicide in 73 AD.

#6 ESSENES: The Essenes were a significant sect, though fewer in number than the Pharisees and the Sadducees.  The origin of the name ‘Essenes’ is uncertain.  They began to emerge 130–100 BC, as a devout group.  Many scholars think the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS), discovered in 1947 at the Qumrán caves near the NW shore, were written by Essenes.

The Essenes were an ascetic sect.  Josephus Wars of the Jews 2:8:2 “There are three philosophical sects among the Jews. The followers of the first are the Pharisees; the second the Sadducees; the third who pretends to a severer discipline are called Essenes. These seem to have a greater affection for one another than other sects have.”  Essenes lived together communally.  Wikipedia: Essenes “Accounts by Josephus and Philo show the Essenes lived a strictly communal life, often compared to later Christian monasticism.”

Essenes were overly concerned with ritual purity.  The concept “works of the law” (Paul wrote against it, e.g. Ga.2:16) is found as Essene rituals in the DSS document 4QMMT.  It related to their sectarian solar calendar, purity regulations & cooking utensils, ceremony, the intermarriage of priests, etc.

Essenes were celibate.  Josephus ibid “They neglect wedlock, but choose out other persons’ children.”  Essenes adopted children.  Continuing in Wars 2:8:3, “These men are despisers of riches.”  Wars 2:8:5 “As for their piety towards God, it is very extraordinary.”  Wars 2:8:6 “They are eminent for fidelity.”  Josephus notes other characteristics and observations of Essenes throughout Wars Book 2: Chapter 8.

Essenes rejected the sacrificial system of the Jerusalem temple and the priesthood, which had become corrupt.  Antiquities of the Jews 18:1:5 “The doctrine of Essenes is: They teach immortality of souls. They do not offer sacrifices, because they have more pure lustrations [ceremonial purification rites] of their own. There are about 4,000 men that live this way, and neither marry wives nor keep servants.”  Philo wrote in Every Good Man Is Free 12:75-84, “They do not make armaments….They honor virtue”.  The writings of Josephus and Philo show an admiration for the Essenes.

Edersheim op. cit., p. 226 “One of their [Essenes] largest colonies being by the shore of the Dead Sea. They also had ‘houses’ in most cities of Palestine. In these houses they lived in common, under officials of their own. They partook of common meals, and devoted themselves to works of charity.”  It seems the moral conduct and good works of the Essene brotherhood resembled in some respects that of 1^st century Jewish Christians.

However, there are no direct Bible references to the Essenes.  Edersheim op. cit., p.225 “We may feel certain: neither John the Baptist…nor the teaching of Christianity, had any connection with Essénism.”  Yet there are scholars who think some Essenes became Jewish Christian Ebionites.  That is conjecture.

The Essene sect disappeared after 70 AD.  Their law interpretations weren’t brought into orthodox Judaism.

#7 NAZARENES: Nazoráios g3480 Greek noun.  It occurs 15 times in the NT, all but once (Ac.24:5) as “Jesus the Nazarene”.

Nazarénes were the new sect of Jewish Christians who believed Jesus/Yeshúa is their prophesied Messiah.  Nazarenes weren’t the same as Old Testament Nazarítes h5139 (who took consecration vows, Nu.6).  Ellicott Commentary Mt.2:23 “Any reference to Nazarite vows is out of the question.”

Why was the new sect of believers called the Nazarenes?  Following are the reasons:

Nazaréth [g3478, 12 occurrences] was the town in Galilee where Jesus grew up.  Lk.2:39 “their own city Nazareth.”  Mt.2:23 “He lived in a town called Nazareth. So was fulfilled what was spoken through the prophets, ‘He shall be called a Nazarene [g3480].”  Dwellers of Nazareth were called Nazarenes or Nazoréans.  Thus Jesus the Nazarene.  Gill Exposition Mt.2:23 “Christ is often called Jesus of Nazareth, or the Nazarene, and His followers Nazarenes, from the place of his habitation.”

In Mt.2:23, Mathew referred to “prophets” in general, not one specifically by name.  Isaiah prophesied of Jesus as a figurative Branch.  Is.11:1-2 “A rod shall come forth out of the stem of Jesse [David’s father], a Branch shall grow out of his roots. And the Spirit of the Lord will rest upon Him.”  (cf. 60:21 branch).  The Hebrew term used by Isaiah for “branch” was náy-tser h5342.  Its sound resembled “Nazarene”.  Jews occasionally used a play-upon-words in their parlance.  Pulpit Commentary Mt.2:23 “It is evident that the Jews connected this name [náy-tser] closely with Jesus the Nazarene, and…saw a connection between it and ‘the Branch’ of Isaiah 11:1.”  Nazarenes were followers of “the Branch”.

Residents of the town Nazareth in Galilee were disliked in general.  Jn.1:46 “Can any good thing come out of Nazareth [g3478]?”  Furthermore, the Pharisees said to Nicódemus in Jn.7:52, “No prophet arises out of Galilee”.

The Jewish authorities disapproved of the new sect.  Benson Commentary Mt.2:23 “Now it is certain the Nazarene was a term of contempt and infamy put upon Christ [cf. Is.53:3], both by unbelieving Jews and Gentiles.”  They also rejected His followers, calling the sect “Nazarenes”.

The Jewish high priest’s attorney said to governor Felix, Ac.24:5, “We have found this man [Paul] to be a real pest, stirring up dissension among all the Jews, and a ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes [g3480]”.  He charged Paul with being a heretical leader.  Gill Exposition Ac.24:5 “Nazarenes…so called by way of contempt and reproach.” “Nazarenes” was a term of reproach. (cf. 1Pe.4:14, Ro.15:3.)

Ray A. Pritz Nazarene Jewish Community, p.15 “The name Nazarenes was at first applied to all Jewish followers of Jesus. Until the name Christian became attached to the Antióchian non-Jews [Ac.11:26], this meant that the name signified the entire Church, not just a sect. So in Ac.24:5 the reference is not to a sect of Christianity, but rather to the entire primitive Church as a sect of Judaism.”  (For the early church being viewed as a sect of Judaism, see “Sabbath Day Became Sunday in Rome”.)

However, apostolic era Jews who believed Jesus/Yeshua is the Messiah referred to themselves as…“The Way” g3598.  Paul said to Felix in Ac.24:14, “I admit to you, that according to the Way which they call a sect [or heresy] do I serve the God of our fathers”.  (ref Ac.24:22, 9:2.)  “The way” g3598 is seen in the Greek Septúagint/LXX.  Is.40:3 LXX “The voice of one crying in the wilderness, ‘Prepare you the way [g3598] of the Lord, make straight the paths for our God.”  The Is.40:3 prophecy is tied to John the Baptizer in Jn.1:23, Mt.3:3, Mk.1:3-4, Lk.3:4.  Also, “the way” (g3598) back to the Tree of Life was guarded by cherubim in Ge.3:24 LXX.  Jesus is the figurative door (Jn.10:7) of the Way to eternal Life.

Church History: The Ancient Nazarenes “The early Church of God, referred to by some as the Nazarenes, left Jerusalem [for Pella, 66 AD] just before the Roman armies of Titus destroyed the city in AD 70. The Church of God then continued to settle and migrate throughout the areas of Asia Minor and later into Europe.”  Those Jewish Christians fled into Jordan, migrated to Syria…and beyond.  Their legacy is the Jewish Christians of today and Christianity.

Those who believed in Jesus became known as Christians, Christianós g5546, Greek noun.  Ac.11:26 “The disciples were first called Christians in Antioch.”  Greek was commonly spoken in Antioch.  In Ac.26:28, Herod Agrippa 2 referred to believers as Christians, ca 59 AD.  Peter wrote to a mixed group of Jew & gentile believers in Asia Minor (1Pe.1:1), ca 64–65 AD.  1Pe.4:16 they’re called Christians.

Conclusion to this two-part topic: The Herodians, the Zealot Nationalist party, and the Essenes…became extinct.  A remnant of the Sadducees may be the Karaíte Jews, which still exist.  Phárisaism is the basis of rabbinic or Talmúdic Judaism today.  Wikipedia: Pharisees “The Pharisees preserved the Pharisáical oral law in the form of the Talmud.”  That’s become normative Judaism.  Although the Talmud is meaningful for the Jewish people, it isn’t necessary for salvation.

Jesus/Yeshua said in Jn.14:6, “I Am the way (g3598), the truth, and the life. No man comes to the Father but by Me.”  Jesus is The Way…the only way!  In no other name is there salvation for mankind (spoken by Peter in Ac.4:10-12)!